{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,7]],"date-time":"2026-10-07T02:52:34Z","timestamp":1791341554301,"version":"4.3.1"},"reference-count":80,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"21","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,31]],"date-time":"2025-10-31T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1761868800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"European Union\u2014NextGenerationEU","award":["CN_00000033"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CN_00000033"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Molecules"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This study investigated the impact of harvest season and extraction method on the yield, composition, and bioactivity of essential oils (EOs) from wild Rosmarinus officinalis L. plants collected in Algeria. Oils were obtained by hydro distillation (HD), steam distillation (SD), and microwave-assisted distillation (MD) across four seasons and characterized by GC\u2013MS. Camphor, \u03b1-pinene, camphene, and 1,8-cineole were consistently dominant, with spring oils, particularly those extracted by microwave-assisted distillation, showing the highest enrichment in oxygenated monoterpenes (up to 59.6%). Functional assays revealed clear seasonal variation, whereas spring oils exhibited the strongest antioxidant capacity, with a FRAP value of 4.63 \u00b5g\/mL, approaching that of the synthetic standard BHA (6.89 \u00b5g\/mL), alongside notable anti-inflammatory effects. Antimicrobial screening indicated selective inhibition of Escherichia coli and Candida albicans, while Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Bacillus subtilis remained resistant. Acute toxicity evaluation confirmed safety at 2000 mg\/kg. These findings demonstrate that ecological timing and extraction strategy critically determine rosemary EO properties and establish quantitative benchmarks for their pharmaceutical and industrial valorization.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules30214258","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,3]],"date-time":"2025-11-03T16:18:42Z","timestamp":1762186722000},"page":"4258","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":19,"title":["Seasonal and Extraction-Dependent Variation in the Composition and Bioactivity of Essential Oils from Wild Rosmarinus officinalis L."],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"30","author":[{"given":"Khalil","family":"Guelifet","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratoire de Recherche sur les Produits Bioactifs et Valorisation de la Biomasse, D\u00e9partement de Chimie, ENS Vieux-Kouba Alger, Algiers 16050, Algeria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Khaled","family":"Kherraz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratoire d\u2019Ethnobotanique et Substances Naturelles, Ecole Normale Sup\u00e9rieure, Vieux-Kouba Algiers, Algiers 16050, Algeria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3536-6358","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mohammed","family":"Messaoudi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratoire de Recherche sur les Produits Bioactifs et Valorisation de la Biomasse, D\u00e9partement de Chimie, ENS Vieux-Kouba Alger, Algiers 16050, Algeria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mohamed Amine","family":"Ferhat","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratoire de Recherche sur les Produits Bioactifs et Valorisation de la Biomasse, D\u00e9partement de Chimie, ENS Vieux-Kouba Alger, Algiers 16050, Algeria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Latifa","family":"Khattabi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Biotechnology Research Center (CRBt), Constantine 25016, Algeria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2785-4949","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Khadra Afaf","family":"Bendrihem","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Biotechnology, Water, Environment and Health Laboratory, Faculty of Natural and Life Sciences, University of Abbes Laghrour, Khenchela 40000, Algeria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5248-5984","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Wafa","family":"Zahnit","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences, University of Ferhat ABBAS Setif 1, El Bez 19000, Algeria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Dalila","family":"Addad","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Biotechnology, Water, Environment and Health Laboratory, Faculty of Natural and Life Sciences, University of Abbes Laghrour, Khenchela 40000, Algeria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1778-8039","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mokhtar","family":"Benmohamed","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Fundamental Sciences, University Amar T\u00e9lidji of Laghouat, P.O. Box. 37G, Road of Gharda\u00efa, Laghouat 03000, Algeria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yacine","family":"Azoudj","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre de Recherche Scientifique et Technique en Analyse Physico-Chimiques (CRAPC), Zone Industrielle Bou-Ismail RP, P.O. Box. 384, Tipazan 42004, Algeria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0006-1264-2344","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lilya","family":"Harchaoui","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Science and Technology Houari Boumediene, Algiers 16111, Algeria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0005-9505-1736","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Khaled","family":"Aggoun","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Organic Materials and Heterochemistry, Echahid Cheikh Larbi Tebessi University, Constantine Road, Tebessa 12002, Algeria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Abdenour","family":"Boumechhour","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Scientific and Technical Research in Analysis Physico-Chemicals (CRAPC), Algiers 16111, Algeria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0718-5450","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Luca","family":"Rastrelli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacy, University of Salerno, Via Giovanni Paolo II, 132, 84084 Fisciano, Italy"},{"name":"National Biodiversity Future Center (NBFC), 90133 Palermo, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,31]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"972","DOI":"10.1080\/0972060X.2018.1533433","article-title":"Effect of Environmental Conditions on the Chemical Composition and Antioxidant Activity of Essential Oils from Rosmarinus officinalis L. 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