{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,4]],"date-time":"2026-08-04T21:43:51Z","timestamp":1785879831190,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":47,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"22","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,7]],"date-time":"2025-11-07T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1762473600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003593","name":"National Council for Scientific and Technological Development","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["478652\/2010-0"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["478652\/2010-0"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003593","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100014153","name":"Banco do Nordeste","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["912011"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["912011"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100014153","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100008532","name":"Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["397\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["397\/2020"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100008532","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel-Brazil","award":["001"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["001"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Molecules"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Momordica charantia L. (Cucurbitaceae) has been widely recognized for its pharmacological potential, although studies on its leaves remain scarce. In this study, the hydroethanolic leaf extract (MCHLE) was chemically characterized by LC\u2013MS\/MS, revealing the presence of octopamine, ferulate, vitexin-2-O-rhamnoside, and other bioactive phenolics. Toxicological evaluation in Wistar rats demonstrated that both acute (2000 mg\/kg) and repeated oral administration (up to 400 mg\/kg for 28 days) caused no clinical or behavioral signs of toxicity. Notably, treatment significantly reduced glucose and cholesterol levels, in addition to attenuating lipid peroxidation and enhancing antioxidant defenses. In vivo, MCHLE inhibited leukocyte and neutrophil infiltration in the LPS-induced peritonitis model, with efficacy comparable to dexamethasone. It also reduced TNF-\u03b1 secretion and nitric oxide generation in peritoneal fluids. In vitro assays with LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophages confirmed these effects, showing dose-dependent inhibition of TNF-\u03b1, IL-1\u03b2, and NO production. Gene expression analysis further demonstrated downregulation of TNF-\u03b1 and MAPK, with marked suppression of NF-\u03baB transcripts. Collectively, these results suggest that MCHLE exerts anti-inflammatory activity by targeting both mediator release and upstream signaling pathways, while maintaining a favorable safety profile, supporting its potential for further investigation as a promising source of bioactive compounds.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules30224335","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,10]],"date-time":"2025-11-10T13:51:08Z","timestamp":1762782668000},"page":"4335","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Momordica charantia L. (Cucurbitaceae) Leaf Extract from Phytochemical Characterization and Toxicity Evaluation to Modulation of Pro-Inflammatory Cytokines and MAPK\/NF\u03baB Pathways"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"30","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0007-5723-3007","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maria L\u00facia de Azevedo","family":"Oliveira","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Post-Graduation Program in Pharmaceutical Sciences, Health Sciences Center, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte, R. Gen. Gustavo Cordeiro de Farias, s\/n\u2014Petr\u00f3polis, Natal 59012-570, RN, Brazil"},{"name":"Multidisciplinary Research Laboratory, Department of Clinical and Toxicological Analysis, Health Sciences Center, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte, R. Gen. Gustavo Cordeiro de Farias, s\/n\u2014Petr\u00f3polis, Natal 59012-570, RN, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5745-8368","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rubiamara Mauricio de","family":"Sousa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Multidisciplinary Research Laboratory, Department of Clinical and Toxicological Analysis, Health Sciences Center, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte, R. Gen. Gustavo Cordeiro de Farias, s\/n\u2014Petr\u00f3polis, Natal 59012-570, RN, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7613-4414","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Eder Alves","family":"Barbosa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Synthesis and Analysis of Biomolecules (LSAB), Institute of Chemistry, Darcy Ribeiro University Campus, University of Brasilia, Bras\u00edlia 70910-900, DF, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5190-4638","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ony Ara\u00fajo","family":"Galdino","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Multidisciplinary Research Laboratory, Department of Clinical and Toxicological Analysis, Health Sciences Center, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte, R. Gen. Gustavo Cordeiro de Farias, s\/n\u2014Petr\u00f3polis, Natal 59012-570, RN, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0005-9607-1907","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Duanny Lorena Aires","family":"Dantas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Multidisciplinary Research Laboratory, Department of Clinical and Toxicological Analysis, Health Sciences Center, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte, R. Gen. Gustavo Cordeiro de Farias, s\/n\u2014Petr\u00f3polis, Natal 59012-570, RN, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3690-316X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ingrid Reale","family":"Alves","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biological and Health Sciences\u2014DCBS, Federal University of Amap\u00e1 (UNIFAP), Rodovia Rod. Josmar Chaves Pinto, km 02\u2014Jardim Marco Zero, Macap\u00e1 68903-419, AP, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6145-7130","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Raphaelle","family":"Sousa Borges","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biological and Health Sciences\u2014DCBS, Federal University of Amap\u00e1 (UNIFAP), Rodovia Rod. Josmar Chaves Pinto, km 02\u2014Jardim Marco Zero, Macap\u00e1 68903-419, AP, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7166-9460","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nayara Costa de Melo","family":"Castelo Branco","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biological and Health Sciences\u2014DCBS, Federal University of Amap\u00e1 (UNIFAP), Rodovia Rod. Josmar Chaves Pinto, km 02\u2014Jardim Marco Zero, Macap\u00e1 68903-419, AP, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6345-630X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Artemis Socorro do","family":"Nascimento Rodrigues","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biological and Health Sciences\u2014DCBS, Federal University of Amap\u00e1 (UNIFAP), Rodovia Rod. Josmar Chaves Pinto, km 02\u2014Jardim Marco Zero, Macap\u00e1 68903-419, AP, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3553-3635","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gisele Cust\u00f3dio","family":"de Souza","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Natural Sciences, Amap\u00e1 State University (UEAP), Av. Presidente Vargas, s\/n\u2014Centro, Macap\u00e1 68900-070, AP, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0793-2647","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Saulo Victor e","family":"Silva","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Food Science and Nutrition, University of Antofagasta, Antofagasta 02800, Chile"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9073-1995","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gabriel","family":"Araujo-Silva","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry Laboratory, Amap\u00e1 State University (UEAP), Av. Presidente Vargas, s\/n\u2014Centro, Macap\u00e1 68900-070, AP, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8249-7617","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jefferson Rom\u00e1ryo Duarte da","family":"Luz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biological and Health Sciences\u2014DCBS, Federal University of Amap\u00e1 (UNIFAP), Rodovia Rod. Josmar Chaves Pinto, km 02\u2014Jardim Marco Zero, Macap\u00e1 68903-419, AP, Brazil"},{"name":"Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry Laboratory, Amap\u00e1 State University (UEAP), Av. Presidente Vargas, s\/n\u2014Centro, Macap\u00e1 68900-070, AP, Brazil"},{"name":"College of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Amap\u00e1 (UNIFAP), Rodovia BR 156, Universidade, Oiapoque 68980-000, AP, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5587-0922","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maria das Gra\u00e7as","family":"Almeida","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Post-Graduation Program in Pharmaceutical Sciences, Health Sciences Center, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte, R. Gen. Gustavo Cordeiro de Farias, s\/n\u2014Petr\u00f3polis, Natal 59012-570, RN, Brazil"},{"name":"Multidisciplinary Research Laboratory, Department of Clinical and Toxicological Analysis, Health Sciences Center, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte, R. Gen. Gustavo Cordeiro de Farias, s\/n\u2014Petr\u00f3polis, Natal 59012-570, RN, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,7]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chavda, V.P., Feechan, J., and Apostolopoulos, V. (2024). Inflammation: The Cause of All Diseases. Cells, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/cells13221906"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Soliman, A.M., and Barreda, D.R. (2023). Acute Inflammation in Tissue Healing. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms24010641"},{"key":"ref_3","first-page":"e714","article-title":"The interaction of innate immune and adaptive immune system","volume":"5","author":"Wang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Med. Comm."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"207","DOI":"10.1038\/s41392-023-01452-1","article-title":"Macrophages in immunoregulation and therapeutics","volume":"8","author":"Chen","year":"2023","journal-title":"Signal. Transduct. Target. Ther."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"317","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jare.2024.06.016","article-title":"Challenges and advances in the management of inflammation in atherosclerosis","volume":"71","author":"Xing","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Adv. Res."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bindu, S., Mazumder, S., and Bandyopadhyay, U. (2020). Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and organ damage: A current perspective. Biochem. Pharmacol., 180.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bcp.2020.114147"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Laurent, M.R., Goemaere, S., Bergmann, P., Body, J.J., Bruy\u00e8re, O., Cavalier, E., Rozenberg, S., Lapauw, B., and Gielen, E. (2022). Prevention and Treatment of Glucocorticoid-Induced Osteoporosis in Adults: Consensus Recommendations From the Belgian Bone Club. Front. Endocrinol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2022.908727"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lazar, A. (2024). Recent Data about the Use of Corticosteroids in Sepsis\u2014Review of Recent Literature. Biomedicines, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/biomedicines12050984"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Luz, J.R.D., Barbosa, E.A., Nascimento, T.E.S., Rezende, A.A., Ururahy, M.A.G., Brito, A.S., Araujo-Silva, G., L\u00f3pez, J.A., and Almeida, M.G. (2022). Chemical Characterization of Flowers and Leaf Extracts Obtained from Turnera subulata and Their Immunomodulatory Effect on LPS-Activated RAW 264.7 Macrophages. Molecules, 27.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules27031084"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2500","DOI":"10.1002\/fsn3.3308","article-title":"Phytobioactive compounds as therapeutic agents for human diseases: A review","volume":"11","author":"Riaz","year":"2023","journal-title":"Food Sci. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rudrapal, M., Rakshit, G., Singh, R.P., Garse, S., Khan, J., and Chakraborty, S. (2024). Dietary Polyphenols: Review on Chemistry\/Sources, Bioavailability\/Metabolism, Antioxidant Effects, and Their Role in Disease Management. Antioxidants, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/antiox13040429"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Behl, T., Kumar, K., Brisc, C., Rus, M., Nistor-Cseppento, D.C., Bustea, C., Aron, R.A.C., Pantis, C., Zengin, G., and Sehgal, A. (2021). Exploring the multifocal role of phytochemicals as immunomodulators. Biomed. Pharmacother., 133.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopha.2020.110959"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nakadate, K., Ito, N., Kawakami, K., and Yamazaki, N. (2025). Anti-Inflammatory Actions of Plant-Derived Compounds and Prevention of Chronic Diseases: From Molecular Mechanisms to Applications. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 26.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms26115206"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xu, B., Li, Z., Zeng, T., Zhan, J., Wang, S., Ho, C., and Li, S. (2022). Bioactives of Momordica charantia as Potential Anti-Diabetic\/Hypoglycemic Agents. Molecules, 27.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules27072175"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bortolotti, M., Mercatelli, D., and Polito, L. (2019). Momordica charantia, a Nutraceutical Approach for Inflammatory Related Diseases. Front. Pharmacol., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2019.00486"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1186\/s43014-022-00089-x","article-title":"A comprehensive review on bitter gourd (Momordica charantia L.) as a gold mine of functional bioactive components for therapeutic foods","volume":"4","author":"Gayathry","year":"2022","journal-title":"Food Prod. Process. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bara, L.V., Budau, R., Apahidean, A.I., Bara, C.M., Iancu, C.V., Jude, E.T., Cheregi, G.R., Timar, A.V., Bei, M.F., and Osvat, I.M. (2025). Momordica charantia L.: Functional Health Benefits and Uses in the Food Industry. Plants, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/plants14172642"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"236","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jep.2006.05.015","article-title":"Some toxicological studies of Momordica charantia L. on albino rats in normal and alloxan diabetic rats","volume":"108","author":"Batran","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Ethnopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, R., Dan, L., Su, L., and Wei, X. (2025). Tissue-specific partitioning of flavonoids and phenolic acids coordinates bioactivities in Ormosia henryi Prain. BMC Plant Biol., 25.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12870-025-07390-0"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1016\/j.joim.2025.04.001","article-title":"Balancing tradition and conservation: Exploring plant part substitution in traditional medicine","volume":"23","author":"Srivastava","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Integr. Med."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nascimento, T.E.S., L\u00f3pez, J.A., Barbosa, E.A., Ururahy, M.A.G., Brito, A.S., Araujo-Silva, G., Luz, J.R.D., and Almeida, M.G. (2022). Mass Spectrometric Identification of Licania rigida Benth Leaf Extracts and Evaluation of Their Therapeutic Effects on Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Inflammatory Response. Molecules, 27.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules27196291"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Naeem, A., Hu, P., Yang, M., Zhang, J., Liu, Y., Zhu, W., and Zheng, Q. (2022). Natural Products as Anticancer Agents: Current Status and Future Perspectives. Molecules, 27.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules27238367"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1176","DOI":"10.1016\/j.crfs.2022.07.007","article-title":"Anti-inflammatory activity of flavonols via inhibiting MAPK and NF-\u03baB signaling pathways in RAW264.7 macrophages","volume":"5","author":"Zhong","year":"2022","journal-title":"Curr. Res. Food Sci."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lee, S.Y., Wong, W.F., Dong, J., and Cheng, K.K. (2020). Momordica charantia Suppresses Inflammation and Glycolysis in Lipopolysaccharide-Activated RAW264.7 Macrophages. Molecules, 25.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules25173783"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1186\/s43162-024-00298-5","article-title":"Bilirubin metabolism: Delving into the cellular and molecular mechanisms to predict complications","volume":"36","author":"Kumbhar","year":"2024","journal-title":"Egypt. J. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_26","first-page":"939","article-title":"The Multifaceted Role of Bilirubin in Liver Disease: A Literature Review","volume":"12","author":"Pal","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Clin. Transl. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1829","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jff.2013.09.002","article-title":"Inhibitory effects of new varieties of bitter melon on lipopolysaccharide-stimulated inflammatory response in RAW 264.7 cells","volume":"5","author":"Hsu","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Func. Foods"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107634","DOI":"10.1016\/j.phrs.2025.107634","article-title":"Effects of natural products on macrophage immunometabolism: A new frontier in the treatment of metabolic diseases","volume":"213","author":"Li","year":"2025","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Res."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Suksungworn, R., Andrade, P.B., Oliveira, A.P., Valent\u00e3o, P., Duangsrisai, S., and Gomes, N.G.M. (2020). Inhibition of Proinflammatory Enzymes and Attenuation of IL-6 in LPS-Challenged RAW 264.7 Macrophages Substantiates the Ethnomedicinal Use of the Herbal Drug Homalium bhamoense Cubitt & W.W.Sm. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms21072421"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7884","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M113.522037","article-title":"Metabolic Reprogramming of Macrophages: Glucose Transporter 1 (Glut1)-Mediated Glucose Metabolism Drives a Proinflammatory Phenotype","volume":"289","author":"Freemerman","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, Y., Xu, R., Gu, H., Zhang, E., Qu, J., Cao, W., Huang, X., Yan, H., He, J., and Cai, Z. (2021). Metabolic reprogramming in macrophage responses. Biomark. Res., 9.","DOI":"10.1186\/s40364-020-00251-y"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1528","DOI":"10.14202\/vetworld.2020.1528-1535","article-title":"Methanol leaf extract of Momordica charantia protects alloxan-induced hepatopathy through modulation of caspase-9 and interleukin-1\u03b2 signaling pathways in rats","volume":"13","author":"Ofuegbe","year":"2020","journal-title":"Vet. World"},{"key":"ref_33","first-page":"787","article-title":"The Protective Effects of Momordica Charantia Fruit Extract in Methotrexate Induced Liver Damage in Rats","volume":"7","author":"Kaya","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cyprus J. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"527","DOI":"10.2147\/JEP.S517411","article-title":"Hepatoprotective Effects of Gac (Momordica cochinchinensis) Aril Extract in Acetaminophen-Induced Liver Injury: Modulation of Oxidative Stress, Inflammation, and Glucose Metabolism","volume":"17","author":"Lonan","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Exp. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1083","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpheart.00065.2021","article-title":"TNF-a-activated eNOS signaling increases leukocyte adhesion through the Snitrosylation pathway","volume":"321","author":"Aguilar","year":"2021","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Heart Circ. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pant, T., Uche, N., Juric, M., Zielonka, J., and Bai, X. (2024). Regulation of immunomodulatory networks by Nrf2-activation in immune cells: Redox control and therapeutic potential in inflammatory diseases. Redox Biol., 70.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.redox.2024.103077"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"427","DOI":"10.1016\/j.freeradbiomed.2025.06.006","article-title":"Redox signaling in innate immunity and inflammation: Focus on macrophages and neutrophils","volume":"237","author":"Braunstein","year":"2025","journal-title":"Free Radic. Biol. Med."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1186\/rr173","article-title":"Activation of macrophage nuclear factor-\u03baB and induct ion of inducible nitric oxide synthase by LPS","volume":"3","author":"Li","year":"2002","journal-title":"Respir. Res."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"216","DOI":"10.1038\/s41392-025-02264-1","article-title":"Pattern recognition receptors: Function, regulation and therapeutic potential","volume":"10","author":"Chen","year":"2025","journal-title":"Signal Transduct. Target. Ther."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"176850","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejphar.2024.176850","article-title":"Anti-inflammatory and antioxidant mechanisms of coniferaldehyde in lipopolysaccharide-induced neuroinflammation: Involvement of AMPK\/Nrf2 and TAK1\/MAPK\/NF-\u03baB signaling pathways","volume":"979","author":"Park","year":"2024","journal-title":"Eur. J. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"384","DOI":"10.1089\/jmf.2018.0141","article-title":"Thrombin Inhibition: Preliminary Assessment of the Anticoagulant Potential of Turnera subulata (Passifloraceae)","volume":"22","author":"Luz","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Med. Food"},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"ANVISA (2004). National health surveillance agency: Ministry of health resolution\u2014RE n\u00b0 90\/2004, Standards for Toxicological Studies of Herbal Products."},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (2001). Guidelines for the Testing of Chemicals: Acute and Toxicity Acute Toxic Class Method, OECD Publishing. OECD Guideline 423."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"276","DOI":"10.1080\/15287394.2021.2002744","article-title":"Licania rigida leaf extract: Protective effect on oxidative stress, associated with cytotoxic, mutagenic and preclinical aspects","volume":"85","author":"Batista","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Toxicol. Environ. Health A"},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (2018). Guidelines for the Testing of Chemicals: Repeated Dose 90-Day Oral Toxicity Study in Rodents, OECD Publishing. OECD Guideline 407."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yagi, K. (1982). Assay for serum lipid peroxide level by TBA reaction. Lipid Peroxides in Biology and Medicine, Academic Press.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-768050-7.50020-2"},{"key":"ref_47","first-page":"882","article-title":"Improved method for the determination of blood glutathione","volume":"61","author":"Beutler","year":"1963","journal-title":"J. Lab. Clin. Med."}],"container-title":["Molecules"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1420-3049\/30\/22\/4335\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,10]],"date-time":"2025-11-10T13:53:15Z","timestamp":1762782795000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1420-3049\/30\/22\/4335"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,7]]},"references-count":47,"journal-issue":{"issue":"22","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,11]]}},"alternative-id":["molecules30224335"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/molecules30224335","relation":{},"ISSN":["1420-3049"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1420-3049","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,7]]}}}