{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,3]],"date-time":"2026-06-03T23:24:39Z","timestamp":1780529079266,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":58,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"23","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,25]],"date-time":"2025-11-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1764028800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Molecules"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Horse chestnut is a rich source of active compounds that exhibit a variety of biological activities, including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and vascular sealing properties. The predominant variety is Aesculus hippocastanum L. (White Horse Chestnut), whereas there are limited reports regarding the biological activity, including the antioxidant potential, of the Red Horse Chestnut (Aesculus carnea H.) variety. This study aimed to conduct a comprehensive analysis of the antioxidant activity of extracts from various parts of A. carnea, including leaves, flowers, unripe, and ripe fruit, as well as to assess the total polyphenol content of the plant, given the limited number of published studies on the subject. This section of the study examined the impact of different extraction factors, including the selection of extraction techniques (Soxhlet extraction, maceration, and ultrasound-assisted extraction) and their parameters (time, solvent type, and concentration). During the second stage of the study, extracts exhibiting the highest antioxidant potential underwent phytochemical analysis utilising HPLC, which included specific phenolic acids and flavonoids. Analyses conducted revealed that extracts from unripe fruits, particularly those prepared in concentrated ethanol using the Soxhlet apparatus, exhibited the highest antioxidant potential and polyphenolic compound content. Notable findings include myricetin (322.281 \u00b1 6.941 mg), 4-hydroxybenzoic acid (25.360 \u00b1 0.525 mg), ferulic acid (62.690 \u00b1 1.350 mg), epicatechin gallate (2.950 \u00b1 0.064 mg), 2-hydroxycinnamic acid (2.013 \u00b1 0.043 mg), ellagic acid (1.735 \u00b1 0.037 mg), and quercetin (1.636 \u00b1 0.037 mg). The antioxidant activity of extracts from unripe fruit, assessed using the DPPH\u2022 method, ranged from 0.31 to 3.38 [mg ascorbic acid g\u22121 of fresh raw material]. The results obtained suggest that red horse chestnut, with its significant levels of compounds exhibiting antioxidant potential, such as polyphenols, could serve as a valuable raw material for the pharmaceutical and cosmetics sectors.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules30234550","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,25]],"date-time":"2025-11-25T16:31:54Z","timestamp":1764088314000},"page":"4550","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Extraction-Dependent Antioxidant Activity of Red Horse Chestnut (Aesculus \u00d7 carnea, Family Sapindaceae) Plant Parts"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"30","author":[{"given":"Katarzyna","family":"Florkowska","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Cosmetic and Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Pomeranian Medical University in Szczecin, Powsta\u0144c\u00f3w Wielkopolskich Ave. 72, PL-70111 Szczecin, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Barbara Hanna","family":"Roman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Cosmetic and Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Pomeranian Medical University in Szczecin, Powsta\u0144c\u00f3w Wielkopolskich Ave. 72, PL-70111 Szczecin, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2293-6489","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dominika","family":"Maciejewska-Markiewicz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Human Nutrition and Metabolomics, Pomeranian Medical University in Szczecin, W\u0142adys\u0142awa Broniewskiego Street 24, PL-71460 Szczecin, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Krystyna","family":"Cybulska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Environmental Management and Agriculture, West Pomeranian University of Technology in Szczecin, PL-71434 Szczecin, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Phillips, R., and Rix, M. (2002). 1: Trees and Shrubs. The Botanical Garden, Macmillan."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e170423215934","DOI":"10.2174\/2215083810666230417115041","article-title":"A Comprehensive Review on Biological and Chemical Diversity in Aesculus L. Genus (Sapindaceae)","volume":"10","author":"Shah","year":"2024","journal-title":"Curr. Tradit. Med."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"(2025, November 10). COSMILE Europe. Available online: https:\/\/cosmileeurope.eu."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"(2025, November 10). CosIng\u2014Cosmetics Ingredients. Available online: https:\/\/ec.europa.eu\/growth\/tools-databases\/cosing\/."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zdravkovi\u0107-Kora\u0107, S., Milojevi\u0107, J., Beli\u0107, M., and \u0106ali\u0107, D. (2022). Tissue Culture Response of Ornamental and Medicinal Aesculus Species\u2014A Review. Plants, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/plants11030277"},{"key":"ref_6","first-page":"422","article-title":"Aesculus Species: A Review on Biologically Active Compounds and Their Possible Applications","volume":"26","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Agroaliment. Process. Technol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Owczarek, A., Kolodziejczyk-Czepas, J., Wo\u017aniak-Serwata, J., Magiera, A., Kobiela, N., W\u0105sowicz, K., and Olszewska, M.A. (2021). Potential Activity Mechanisms of Aesculus hippocastanum Bark: Antioxidant Effects in Chemical and Biological In Vitro Models. Antioxidants, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/antiox10070995"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"367","DOI":"10.1016\/j.phytol.2019.02.031","article-title":"Biological Activity of Aesculus hippocastanum Flower Extracts on Vascular Endothelial Cells Cultured in Vitro","volume":"30","author":"Korybalska","year":"2019","journal-title":"Phytochem. Lett."},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"403","article-title":"Flavonoids from the flowers of Aesculus hippocastanum","volume":"68","year":"2011","journal-title":"Acta Pol. Pharm. \u00f1 Drug Res."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"603","DOI":"10.2298\/JSC201111013G","article-title":"Subcritical Water Extraction of Horse Chestnut (Aesculus hippocastanum) Tree Parts","volume":"86","author":"Gagic","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Serbian Chem. Soc."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1445","DOI":"10.13005\/bpj\/2482","article-title":"In Vitro Cytotoxic Action of Aesculus hippocastanum Extract Against PA 1 Human Ovarian Cell-Line","volume":"15","author":"Roshni","year":"2022","journal-title":"Biomed. Pharmacol. J."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kaliyamoorthi, K., Loordhurani, A., Subashchandrabose, O., Lakshmanan, V., Ganapathi, S., and Sathiavakoo, V.A. (2022). Cardioprotective Effect of Aescin on Antioxidant and Lipid Profile in Isoproterenol-Induced Myocardial Infarction in Rats. Int. J. Pharm. Sci. Res.","DOI":"10.21203\/rs.3.rs-1978048\/v1"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sharipov, A., Tursunov, K., Fazliev, S., Azimova, B., and Razzokov, J. (2021). Hypoglycemic and Anti-Inflammatory Effects of Triterpene Glycoside Fractions from Aeculus hippocastanum Seeds. Molecules, 26.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules26133784"},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"1128","article-title":"Characterisation of the Antioxidant Effects of Aesculus hippocastanum L. Bark Extract on the Basis of Radical Scavenging Activity, the Chemiluminescence of Human Neutrophil Bursts and Lipoperoxidation Assay","volume":"16","author":"Braga","year":"2012","journal-title":"Eur. Rev. Med. Pharmacol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"184","DOI":"10.1007\/s12031-014-0303-x","article-title":"Escin, a Novel Triterpene, Mitigates Chronic MPTP\/p-Induced Dopaminergic Toxicity by Attenuating Mitochondrial Dysfunction, Oxidative Stress, and Apoptosis","volume":"55","author":"Selvakumar","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Mol. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dridi, A., Reis, F.S., Pires, T.C.S.P., Calhelha, R.C., Pereira, C., Zaghdoudi, K., Ferreira, I.C.F.R., Barros, L., and Barreira, J.C.M. (2023). Aesculus hippocastanum L.: A Simple Ornamental Plant or a Source of Compelling Molecules for Industry?. Separations, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/separations10030160"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3425","DOI":"10.2147\/DDDT.S207720","article-title":"Escin: A Review of Its Anti-Edematous, Anti-Inflammatory, and Venotonic Properties","volume":"13","author":"Gallelli","year":"2019","journal-title":"Drug Des. Dev. Ther."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Baraldi, C., Foca, G., Maletti, L., Marchetti, A., Roncaglia, F., Sighinolfi, S., and Tassi, L. (2020). Red Horse-Chestnut Seeds of Aesculus \u00d7 Carnea. Nuts and Seeds in Health and Disease Prevention, Elsevier.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-818553-7.00003-6"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"D\u2019Eusanio, V., Marchetti, A., Rivi, M., Morelli, L., Scarponi, P., Forti, L., and Tassi, L. (2025). Mineral Composition Analysis of Red Horse-Chestnut (Aesculus \u00d7 Carnea) Seeds and Hydroalcoholic Crude Extract Using ICP OES. Molecules, 30.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules30040819"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"847","DOI":"10.3390\/agriengineering4040054","article-title":"Hyphenated Extraction of Valuable Compounds from Aesculus Carnea: Ultrasound Extraction with Pulsed Electric Field Pretreatment","volume":"4","author":"Ntourtoglou","year":"2022","journal-title":"AgriEngineering"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106825","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vph.2020.106825","article-title":"Therapeutic Potential of Flavonoids in the Treatment of Chronic Venous Insufficiency","volume":"137","author":"Casili","year":"2021","journal-title":"Vascul. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Durante, C., Cocchi, M., Lancellotti, L., Maletti, L., Marchetti, A., Roncaglia, F., Sighinolfi, S., and Tassi, L. (2020). Analytical Concentrations of Some Elements in Seeds and Crude Extracts from Aesculus hippocastanum, by ICP-OES Technique. Agronomy, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/agronomy11010047"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Foca, G., Ulrici, A., Cocchi, M., Durante, C., Vigni, M.L., Marchetti, A., Sighinolfi, S., and Tassi, L. (2011). Seeds of Horse Chestnut (Aesculus hippocastanum L.) and Their Possible Utilization for Human Consumption. Nuts and Seeds in Health and Disease Prevention, Elsevier.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-375688-6.10076-3"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1155\/2014\/681073","article-title":"Biologic Propensities and Phytochemical Profile of Vangueria madagascariensis J. F. Gmelin (Rubiaceae): An Underutilized Native Medicinal Food Plant from Africa","volume":"2014","author":"Ramalingum","year":"2014","journal-title":"BioMed Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bielarska, A.M., Jasek, J.W., Kazimierczak, R., and Hallmann, E. (2022). Red Horse Chestnut and Horse Chestnut Flowers and Leaves: A Potential and Powerful Source of Polyphenols with High Antioxidant Capacity. Molecules, 27.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules27072279"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1106","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2007.09.030","article-title":"Antioxidant Activities of the Extracts from Chestnut Flower, Leaf, Skins and Fruit","volume":"107","author":"Barreira","year":"2008","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_27","first-page":"692","article-title":"Antioxidant Capacity and Cytotoxicity of Aesculus hippocastanum on Breast Cancer MCF-7 Cells","volume":"20","author":"Celep","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Food Drug Anal."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xing, Z., Bi, G., Li, T., Zhang, Q., and Knight, P.R. (2024). Effect of Harvest Time on Growth and Bioactive Compounds in Salvia Miltiorrhiza. Plants, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/plants13131788"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pietrzak, W., and Nowak, R. (2021). Impact of Harvest Conditions and Host Tree Species on Chemical Composition and Antioxidant Activity of Extracts from Viscum album L. Molecules 2021, 26, 3741. Molecules, 26.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules26123741"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1021\/acsfoodscitech.1c00227","article-title":"Microwave-Assisted Extraction of Olive Leaf from Five Italian Cultivars: Effects of Harvest-Time and Extraction Conditions on Phenolic Compounds and In Vitro Antioxidant Properties","volume":"2","author":"Imperatore","year":"2022","journal-title":"ACS Food Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Paulauskien\u0117, A., Tarasevi\u010dien\u0117, \u017d., and Laukagalis, V. (2021). Influence of Harvesting Time on the Chemical Composition of Wild Stinging Nettle (Urtica dioica L.). Plants, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/plants10040686"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e7857","DOI":"10.7717\/peerj.7857","article-title":"Solvent Polarity Mediates Phytochemical Yield and Antioxidant Capacity of Isatis tinctoria","volume":"7","author":"Wakeel","year":"2019","journal-title":"PeerJ"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"893","DOI":"10.1038\/s41597-025-05262-8","article-title":"Mass Spectral Data of Primary and Secondary Metabolites Changes in Medicinal Plants by Solvent Polarity","volume":"12","author":"Park","year":"2025","journal-title":"Sci. Data"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lezoul, N.E.H., Belkadi, M., Habibi, F., and Guill\u00e9n, F. (2020). Extraction Processes with Several Solvents on Total Bioactive Compounds in Different Organs of Three Medicinal Plants. Molecules, 25.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules25204672"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"05","DOI":"10.22271\/phyto.2023.v12.i6a.14760","article-title":"Effect of Extraction Solvent and Plant Part on the Yield of Phenolic Compounds, Plumbagin and Biological Activity of Plumbago Zeylanica","volume":"12","author":"Dwivedi","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Pharmacogn. Phytochem."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"149","DOI":"10.25121\/PF.2018.19.3.149","article-title":"Aktywno\u015b\u0107 Przeciwutleniaj\u0105ca Ekstrakt\u00f3w z Wybranych Ro\u015blin Nale\u017c\u0105cych Do Rodziny Rosaceae","volume":"19","author":"Muzykiewicz","year":"2018","journal-title":"Post\u0119py Fitoter."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1043","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sjbs.2018.07.013","article-title":"Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction of Some Branded Tea: Optimization Based on Polyphenol Content, Antioxidant Potential and Thermodynamic Study","volume":"26","author":"Bakht","year":"2019","journal-title":"Saudi J. Biol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14625","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules190914625","article-title":"The Content of Phenolic Compounds in Leaf Tissues of White (Aesculus hippocastanum L.) and Red Horse Chestnut (Aesculus carea H.) Colonized by the Horse Chestnut Leaf Miner (Cameraria ohridella Deschka & Dimi\u0107)","volume":"19","author":"Kalisz","year":"2014","journal-title":"Molecules"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Taheri, Y., Suleria, H.A.R., Martins, N., Sytar, O., Beyatli, A., Yeskaliyeva, B., Seitimova, G., Salehi, B., Semwal, P., and Painuli, S. (2020). Myricetin Bioactive Effects: Moving from Preclinical Evidence to Potential Clinical Applications. BMC Complement. Med. Ther., 20.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12906-020-03033-z"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"293","DOI":"10.22271\/journalofsport.2021.v6.i1e.2236","article-title":"Classifications of Polyphenols and Their Potential Application in Human Health and Diseases","volume":"6","author":"Prabhu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Physiol. Nutr. Phys. Educ."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Owczarek, A., Ko\u0142odziejczyk-Czepas, J., Marczuk, P., Siwek, J., W\u0105sowicz, K., and Olszewska, M. (2021). Bioactivity Potential of Aesculus Hippocastanum L. Flower: Phytochemical Profile, Antiradical Capacity and Protective Effects on Human Plasma Components under Oxidative\/Nitrative Stress In Vitro. Pharmaceuticals, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/ph14121301"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Roman, B.H., Muzykiewicz-Szyma\u0144ska, A., Florkowska, K., Tkacz, M., Wilk, B., Kucharski, \u0141., Madali\u0144ska, A., and Nowak, A. (2025). The Use of Plants That Seal Blood Vessels in Preparations Applied Topically to the Skin: A Review. Molecules, 30.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules30091973"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"727","DOI":"10.1177\/09731296241299498","article-title":"Pharmacological Activities of Aesculus hippocastanum and Its Bioactive Constituents in Hemostasis: A Mechanistic Review","volume":"21","author":"Yan","year":"2025","journal-title":"Pharmacogn. Mag."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20190115","DOI":"10.1515\/jbcpp-2019-0115","article-title":"Phytochemical, Ethanomedicinal and Pharmacological Applications of Escin from Aesculus hippocastanum L. towards Future Medicine","volume":"31","author":"Idris","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Basic Clin. Physiol. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"\u0160tumpf, S., Hostnik, G., Langerholc, T., Pintari\u010d, M., Kolenc, Z., and Bren, U. (2023). The Influence of Chestnut Extract and Its Components on Antibacterial Activity against Staphylococcus Aureus. Plants, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/plants12102043"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rodr\u00edguez-Arce, E., and Sald\u00edas, M. (2021). Antioxidant Properties of Flavonoid Metal Complexes and Their Potential Inclusion in the Development of Novel Strategies for the Treatment against Neurodegenerative Diseases. Biomed. Pharmacother., 143.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopha.2021.112236"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sul, O.-J., and Ra, S.W. (2021). Quercetin Prevents LPS-Induced Oxidative Stress and Inflammation by Modulating NOX2\/ROS\/NF-kB in Lung Epithelial Cells. Molecules, 26.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules26226949"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8825387","DOI":"10.1155\/2020\/8825387","article-title":"Quercetin: Its Main Pharmacological Activity and Potential Application in Clinical Medicine","volume":"2020","author":"Yang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Oxidative Med. Cell. Longev."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"892","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopha.2016.10.011","article-title":"Bioactive Effects of Quercetin in the Central Nervous System: Focusing on the Mechanisms of Actions","volume":"84","author":"Suganthy","year":"2016","journal-title":"Biomed. Pharmacother."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"355","DOI":"10.2174\/0929867323666160909153707","article-title":"The Antidiabetic Potential of Quercetin: Underlying Mechanisms","volume":"24","author":"Haddad","year":"2017","journal-title":"Curr. Med. Chem."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5854","DOI":"10.1002\/fsn3.2513","article-title":"Myricetin: A Comprehensive Review on Its Biological Potentials","volume":"9","author":"Imran","year":"2021","journal-title":"Food Sci. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Niisato, N., and Marunaka, Y. (2023). Therapeutic Potential of Multifunctional Myricetin for Treatment of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus. Front. Nutr., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnut.2023.1175660"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rahmani, A., Almatroudi, A., Allemailem, K., Alwanian, W., Alharbi, B., Alrumaihi, F., Khan, A., and Almatroodi, S. (2023). Myricetin: A Significant Emphasis on Its Anticancer Potential via the Modulation of Inflammation and Signal Transduction Pathways. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms24119665"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jing, S., Wang, L., Wang, T., Fan, L., Chen, L., Xiang, H., Shi, Y., and Wang, D. (2021). Myricetin Protects Mice against MRSA-Related Lethal Pneumonia by Targeting ClpP. Biochem. Pharmacol., 192.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bcp.2021.114753"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.nutr.22.111401.144957","article-title":"DIETARY FLAVONOIDS: Bioavailability, Metabolic Effects, and Safety","volume":"22","author":"Ross","year":"2002","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nowak, A., Zag\u00f3rska-Dziok, M., Ossowicz-Rupniewska, P., Makuch, E., Duchnik, W., Kucharski, \u0141., Adamiak-Giera, U., Prowans, P., Czapla, N., and Bargiel, P. (2021). Epilobium Angustifolium L. Extracts as Valuable Ingredients in Cosmetic and Dermatological Products. Molecules, 26.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules26113456"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kucharski, \u0141., Cybulska, K., Kucharska, E., Nowak, A., Pe\u0142ech, R., and Klimowicz, A. (2022). Biologically Active Preparations from the Leaves of Wild Plant Species of the Genus Rubus. Molecules, 27.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules27175486"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.1186\/s13568-020-01122-3","article-title":"Enhancement of the Antioxidant and Skin Permeation Properties of Eugenol by the Esterification of Eugenol to New Derivatives","volume":"10","author":"Makuch","year":"2020","journal-title":"AMB Express"}],"container-title":["Molecules"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1420-3049\/30\/23\/4550\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,3]],"date-time":"2025-12-03T16:47:48Z","timestamp":1764780468000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1420-3049\/30\/23\/4550"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,25]]},"references-count":58,"journal-issue":{"issue":"23","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12]]}},"alternative-id":["molecules30234550"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/molecules30234550","relation":{},"ISSN":["1420-3049"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1420-3049","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,25]]}}}