{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,7]],"date-time":"2026-10-07T02:52:48Z","timestamp":1791341568469,"version":"4.3.1"},"reference-count":105,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,8]],"date-time":"2026-01-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1767830400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"NATIONAL BIODIVERSITY FUTURE CENTER","award":["CN_00000033"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CN_00000033"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Molecules"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This investigation explored how seasonal variation affects the phytochemical composition and biological potential of Rosmarinus officinalis L., a widely used aromatic and medicinal plant. Aerial parts collected during spring, summer, autumn, and winter were extracted with ethanol and analyzed using LC-ESI-MS\/MS, while total phenolic (TPC) and flavonoid (TFC) contents were determined spectrophotometrically. The extracts were evaluated for antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, enzyme inhibitory, analgesic, antimicrobial, cytotoxic, and photoprotective properties. Major constituents identified in all seasons included luteolin, kaempferol, rutin, and biochanin A. The autumn extract contained the highest phenolic (353.21 \u00b1 4.05 \u00b5g GAE\/mg) and flavonoid (190.11 \u00b1 5.65 \u00b5g QE\/mg) levels. Antioxidant assays revealed that the autumn extract had the strongest DPPH radical scavenging activity (IC50 = 24.72 \u00b1 0.16 \u00b5g\/mL), while the spring extract exhibited the greatest reducing power (A0.5 = 7.62 \u00b1 0.30 \u00b5g\/mL). The winter extract demonstrated superior anti-inflammatory activity (IC50 = 28.60 \u00b1 2.84 \u00b5g\/mL), exceeding the reference drug diclofenac. Only the spring extract inhibited urease (IC50 = 62.26 \u00b1 0.58 \u00b5g\/mL) and moderately inhibited \u03b1-amylase. All seasonal extracts showed notable photoprotective potential, with SPF values between 25.18 and 32.46, well above the recommended minimum. The spring extract also presented strong analgesic activity and no acute toxicity up to 2000 mg\/kg. Antimicrobial effects were weak, limited to slight inhibition of Staphylococcus aureus, while moderate cytotoxicity was observed against MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells. Overall, seasonal variation significantly influenced the chemical profile and bioactivities of R. officinalis, with autumn and spring identified as the most suitable harvesting periods for pharmaceutical and cosmetic applications.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules31020220","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,8]],"date-time":"2026-01-08T15:33:16Z","timestamp":1767886396000},"page":"220","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Seasonal Variation in Wild Rosmarinus officinalis L.: Phytochemicals and Their Multifunctional Potential Against Metabolic Disorders"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"31","author":[{"given":"Khaled","family":"Kherraz","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Ethnobotany and Natural Substances, Higher Normal School, Vieux-Kouba, Algiers 16050, Algeria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8432-3840","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Khalil","family":"Guelifet","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Research on Bioactive Products and Biomass Valorization, Department of Chemistry, Higher Normal School of Kouba (ENS), P.O. Box 92, Vieux-Kouba, Algiers 16308, Algeria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1778-8039","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mokhtar","family":"Benmohamed","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Fundamental Sciences, University Amar T\u00e9lidji of Laghouat, Road of Gharda\u00efa, P.O. Box 37G, Laghouat 03000, Algeria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0718-5450","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Luca","family":"Rastrelli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacy, University of Salerno, Via Giovanni Paolo II, 132, Fisciano, 84084 Salerno, Italy"},{"name":"National Biodiversity Future Center (NBFC), 90133 Palermo, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Latifa","family":"Khattabi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Biotechnology Research Center (CRBt), Constantine 25000, Algeria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2785-4949","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Afaf Khadra","family":"Bendrihem","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Biotechnology, Water, Environment and Health Laboratory, Faculty of Natural and Life Sciences, University of Abbes Laghrour, Khenchela 40000, Algeria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Abderrazek","family":"Ferhat","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Research in Science and Environment, Bioresources, Geochemistry-Physics, Legislation and Socio-Economic Development, Faculty of Sciences and Technology, University of Tamanghasset, Sersouf, Tamanrasset 10034, Algeria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mohamed Amine","family":"Ferhat","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Research on Bioactive Products and Biomass Valorization, Department of Chemistry, Higher Normal School of Kouba (ENS), P.O. Box 92, Vieux-Kouba, Algiers 16308, Algeria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0005-9505-1736","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Khaled","family":"Aggoun","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Organic Materials and Heterochemistry, Echahid Cheikh Larbi Tebessi University, Constantine Road, Tebessa 12002, Algeria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Duygu Ayg\u00fcnes","family":"Jafari","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Medicine, Department of Medical Biology, Ege University, 35100 Izmir, Turkey"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8183-7624","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Barbara","family":"Sawicka","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Plant Production Technology and Commoditties Science, University of Life Sciences in Lublin, Akademicka 15 Str., 20-950 Lublin, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0006-1264-2344","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lilya","family":"Harchaoui","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Science and Technology Houari Boumediene, Algiers 16111, Algeria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5248-5984","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Wafa","family":"Zahnit","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences, University of Ferhat ABBAS Setif 1, El Bez 19000, Algeria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4157-1523","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Azzeddine","family":"Zeraib","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Biotechnology, Water, Environment and Health Laboratory, Faculty of Natural and Life Sciences, University of Abbes Laghrour, Khenchela 40000, Algeria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3536-6358","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mohammed","family":"Messaoudi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Research on Bioactive Products and Biomass Valorization, Department of Chemistry, Higher Normal School of Kouba (ENS), P.O. Box 92, Vieux-Kouba, Algiers 16308, Algeria"},{"name":"Laboratory N\u2014Body and Structure of Matter, Ecole Normale Sup\u00e9rieure, P.O. Box 92, Vieux-Kouba, Algiers 16050, Algeria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,8]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"937","DOI":"10.4314\/bcse.v39i5.10","article-title":"Turgenia latifolia (L.) Hoffm: Chemical profiling and antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer activities","volume":"39","author":"Aggoun","year":"2025","journal-title":"Bull. Chem. Soc. Ethiop."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ansari, P., Reberio, A.D., Ansari, N.J., Kumar, S., Khan, J.T., Chowdhury, S., Abd El-Mordy, F.M., Hannan, J.M.A., Flatt, P.R., and Abdel-Wahab, Y.H.A. (2025). 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