{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,1]],"date-time":"2026-10-01T15:59:52Z","timestamp":1790870392173,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":141,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,3]],"date-time":"2026-02-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1770076800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100002661","name":"National Fund for Scientific Research","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["40009257"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["40009257"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100002661","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100002661","name":"National Fund for Scientific Research","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["40021286"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["40021286"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100002661","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Foundation L\u00e9on Fr\u00e9d\u00e9ricq"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Molecules"],"abstract":"<jats:p>RNA viruses pose a persistent global threat due to their high mutation rates, zoonotic potential, and rapid adaptability. Emergence events have risen steadily, as demonstrated by major outbreaks caused by Influenza A, Ebola, Zika, and Chikungunya viruses, followed by the coronavirus epidemics of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV-1) and Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus (MERS-CoV) and culminating in the COVID-19 pandemic. These characteristics frequently compromise the durability of existing vaccines and antiviral therapies, highlighting the urgent need for new antiviral agents. Alkaloids, a structurally diverse class of nitrogen-containing natural compounds, have gained attention for their ability to interfere with multiple stages of the viral life cycle, including entry, replication, protein synthesis, and host immune modulation. To our knowledge, this review compiles all currently reported alkaloids with antiviral activity against RNA viruses and summarizes their proposed mechanisms of action, distinguishing evidence from in vitro, in vivo, and in silico studies. Quaternary alkaloids are discussed separately because their permanent ionic charge enables distinctive interactions with membranes and host pathways. Although many findings are promising, clinical translation remains limited by incomplete mechanistic validation, scarce in vivo data, suboptimal bioavailability, narrow therapeutic windows, and inconsistent experimental methodologies. To advance the field, future research should prioritize RT-qPCR\u2013based antiviral evaluation to accurately quantify viral replication, incorporate mechanistic assays to clarify modes of action, apply structure\u2013activity relationship (SAR) approaches for rational optimization, and expand in vivo pharmacokinetic and efficacy studies to assess therapeutic feasibility. Overall, alkaloids represent a promising yet underdeveloped reservoir for next-generation antiviral discovery against rapidly evolving RNA viruses.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules31030539","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,3]],"date-time":"2026-02-03T16:46:28Z","timestamp":1770137188000},"page":"539","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Natural Alkaloids as Antiviral Agents Against RNA Viruses: A Comprehensive and Mechanistic Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"31","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4595-4193","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kristi","family":"Leka","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Medicine, University of Li\u00e8ge, CIRM, Building B36 Quartier H\u00f4pital, 4000 Liege, Belgium"},{"name":"Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Li\u00e8ge, FARAH-INDEEP, Building B42 Quartier Vall\u00e9e 2 Avenue de Cureghem 6, 4000 Liege, Belgium"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"L\u00facia","family":"Mamede","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Medicine, University of Li\u00e8ge, CIRM, Building B36 Quartier H\u00f4pital, 4000 Liege, Belgium"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Elyn","family":"Vandeberg","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Medicine, University of Li\u00e8ge, CIRM, Building B36 Quartier H\u00f4pital, 4000 Liege, Belgium"},{"name":"Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Li\u00e8ge, FARAH-INDEEP, Building B42 Quartier Vall\u00e9e 2 Avenue de Cureghem 6, 4000 Liege, Belgium"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6096-5726","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mutien-Marie","family":"Garigliany","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Medicine, University of Li\u00e8ge, CIRM, Building B36 Quartier H\u00f4pital, 4000 Liege, Belgium"},{"name":"Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Li\u00e8ge, FARAH-INDEEP, Building B42 Quartier Vall\u00e9e 2 Avenue de Cureghem 6, 4000 Liege, Belgium"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4052-6336","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Allison","family":"Ledoux","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Medicine, University of Li\u00e8ge, CIRM, Building B36 Quartier H\u00f4pital, 4000 Liege, Belgium"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,3]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"466","DOI":"10.1016\/j.resmic.2009.07.008","article-title":"The origin of viruses","volume":"160","author":"Forterre","year":"2009","journal-title":"Res. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"235","DOI":"10.1128\/br.35.3.235-241.1971","article-title":"Expression of animal virus genomes","volume":"35","author":"Baltimore","year":"1971","journal-title":"Bacteriol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gebreyes, W.A., Dupouy-Camet, J., Newport, M.J., Oliveira, C.J.B., Schlesinger, L.S., Saif, Y.M., Kariuki, S., Saif, L.J., Saville, W., and Wittum, T. (2014). The Global One Health Paradigm: Challenges and Opportunities for Tackling Infectious Diseases at the Human, Animal, and Environment Interface in Low-Resource Settings. PLoS Neglected Trop. Dis., 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0003257"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1159\/000069749","article-title":"Viral zoonoses\u2014A threat under control?","volume":"46","author":"Ludwig","year":"2003","journal-title":"Intervirology"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"757","DOI":"10.1038\/s41576-021-00408-x","article-title":"The biological and clinical significance of emerging SARS-CoV-2 variants","volume":"22","author":"Tao","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Genet."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1038\/s41579-020-00468-6","article-title":"Coronavirus biology and replication: Implications for SARS-CoV-2","volume":"19","author":"Kratzel","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-021-03944-y","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2 B.1.617.2 Delta variant replication and immune evasion","volume":"599","author":"Mlcochova","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2126","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(21)02758-6","article-title":"Omicron SARS-CoV-2 variant: A new chapter in the COVID-19 pandemic","volume":"398","author":"Karim","year":"2021","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1038\/d41586-021-03552-w","article-title":"Omicron Variant Puts","volume":"600","author":"Ewen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"343","DOI":"10.1093\/ilar\/ilx026","article-title":"Are RNA viruses candidate agents for the next global pandemic? A review","volume":"58","author":"Vidal","year":"2017","journal-title":"ILAR J."},{"key":"ref_11","first-page":"11","article-title":"Review on Classification and Nomenclature of Viruses","volume":"11","author":"Bimrew","year":"2023","journal-title":"Am. J. Life Sci."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1038\/nrmicro.2016.177","article-title":"Consensus statement: Virus taxonomy in the age of metagenomics","volume":"15","author":"Simmonds","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"001806","DOI":"10.1099\/jgv.0.001806","article-title":"Virus classification based on in-depth sequence analyses and development of demarcation criteria using the Betaflexiviridae as a case study","volume":"103","author":"Silva","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Gen. Virol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bhambhani, S., Kondhare, K.R., and Giri, A.P. (2021). Diversity in Chemical Structures and Biological Properties of Plant Alkaloids. Molecules, 26.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules26113374"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nguyen, T.D., and Dang, T.T.T. (2021). Cytochrome P450 Enzymes as Key Drivers of Alkaloid Chemical Diversification in Plants. Front. Plant Sci., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpls.2021.682181"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kishimoto, S., Sato, M., Tsunematsu, Y., and Watanabe, K. (2016). Evaluation of biosynthetic pathway and engineered biosynthesis of alkaloids. Molecules, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules21081078"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1007\/978-981-13-9566-6_5","article-title":"Medicinal Plants as a Source of Alkaloids","volume":"15","author":"Masci","year":"2019","journal-title":"Microorg. Sustain."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dey, P., Kundu, A., Kumar, A., Gupta, M., Lee, B.M., Bhakta, T., Dash, S., and Kim, H.S. (2020). Analysis of Alkaloids (Indole Alkaloids, Isoquinoline Alkaloids, Tropane Alkaloids), Elsevier Inc.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-816455-6.00015-9"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, X., Zhu, J., Zhang, D., and Liu, G. (2022). Ribosomal control in RNA virus-infected cells. Front. Microbiol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2022.1026887"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cesaro, T., and Michiels, T. (2021). Inhibition of PKR by Viruses. Front. Microbiol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2021.757238"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"777","DOI":"10.14348\/molcells.2016.0232","article-title":"Viral inhibition of PRR-Mediated innate immune response: Learning from KSHV evasion strategies","volume":"39","author":"Lee","year":"2016","journal-title":"Mol. Cells"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1385","DOI":"10.1099\/vir.0.042499-0","article-title":"Non-canonical translation in RNA viruses","volume":"93","author":"Firth","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Gen. Virol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1007\/s13659-022-00366-9","article-title":"Alkaloids as potential antivirals. A comprehensive review","volume":"13","author":"Faisal","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nat. Prod. Bioprospecting"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Abookleesh, F.L., Al-Anzi, B.S., and Ullah, A. (2022). Potential Antiviral Action of Alkaloids. Molecules, 27.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules27030903"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Seteyen, A.L.S., Girard-Valenciennes, E., Septembre-Malaterre, A., Gasque, P., Guiraud, P., and S\u00e9lambarom, J. (2022). Anti-Alphaviral Alkaloids: Focus on Some Isoquinolines, Indoles and Quinolizidines. Molecules, 27.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules27165080"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2686","DOI":"10.1002\/ptr.7442","article-title":"The naturally-derived alkaloids as a potential treatment for COVID-19: A scoping review","volume":"36","author":"Gonzalez","year":"2022","journal-title":"Phytother. Res."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.3987\/REV-22-SR(R)3","article-title":"Alkaloids and Alkaloid-Like Compounds are Potential Scaffolds of Antiviral Agents against SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19) Virus","volume":"105","author":"Kittakoop","year":"2022","journal-title":"Heterocycles"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sharma, D., Sharma, N., Manchanda, N., Prasad, S.K., Sharma, P.C., Thakur, V.K., Rahman, M.M., and Dhobi, M. (2022). Bioactivity and In Silico Studies of Isoquinoline and Related Alkaloids as Promising Antiviral Agents: An Insight. Biomolecules, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/biom13010017"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1163","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apsb.2020.06.002","article-title":"Bioactive natural compounds against human coronaviruses: A review and perspective","volume":"10","author":"Xian","year":"2020","journal-title":"Acta Pharm. Sin. B"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"188","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.jmedchem.2c00857","article-title":"Identification of N- and C-3-Modified Laudanosoline Derivatives as Novel Influenza PAN Endonuclease Inhibitors","volume":"66","author":"Liao","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Med. Chem."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1133","DOI":"10.1111\/cbdd.13175","article-title":"1,2,3,4-Tetrahydroisoquinolines as inhibitors of HIV-1 integrase and human LEDGF\/p75 interaction","volume":"91","author":"George","year":"2018","journal-title":"Chem. Biol. Drug Des."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, X., Burdzhiev, N.T., Hu, H., Li, Y., Li, J., Lozanova, V.V., Kandinska, M.I., and Wang, M. (2023). Novel Tetrahydroisoquinoline-Based Heterocyclic Compounds Efficiently Inhibit SARS-CoV-2 Infection In Vitro. Viruses, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/v15020502"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6632623","DOI":"10.1155\/2021\/6632623","article-title":"Alkaloids as Potential Phytochemicals against SARS-CoV-2: Approaches to the Associated Pivotal Mechanisms","volume":"2021","author":"Majnooni","year":"2021","journal-title":"Evid.-Based Complement. Altern. Med."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2040206620984076","DOI":"10.1177\/2040206620984076","article-title":"Alkaloids and flavonoids from African phytochemicals as potential inhibitors of SARS-CoV-2 RNA-dependent RNA polymerase: An in silico perspective","volume":"28","author":"Ogunyemi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Antivir. Chem. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cheng, F., Murray, J.L., Zhao, J., Sheng, J., Zhao, Z., and Rubin, D.H. (2016). Systems Biology-Based Investigation of Cellular Antiviral Drug Targets Identified by Gene-Trap Insertional Mutagenesis. PLoS Comput. Biol., 12.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pcbi.1005074"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e28913","DOI":"10.1002\/jmv.28913","article-title":"The in vitro and in vivo antiviral effects of aloperine against Zika virus infection","volume":"95","author":"Zhou","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Med. Virol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3527","DOI":"10.1021\/acsptsci.4c00424","article-title":"Amaryllidaceae Alkaloids Screen Unveils Potent Anticoronaviral Compounds and Associated Structural Determinants","volume":"7","author":"Merindol","year":"2024","journal-title":"ACS Pharmacol. Transl. Sci."},{"key":"ref_38","first-page":"2","article-title":"Berbamine inhibits SARS-CoV-2 infection by compromising TRPMLs-mediated endolysosomal trafficking of ACE2","volume":"6","author":"Huang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Signal Transduct. Target. Ther."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103944","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psj.2024.103944","article-title":"Canthin-6-one analogs block Newcastle disease virus proliferation via suppressing the Akt and ERK pathways","volume":"103","author":"Wang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Poult. Sci."},{"key":"ref_40","first-page":"1","article-title":"Canthin-6-One 9-O-Beta-Glucopyranoside: A natural inhibitor of SARS-CoV-2 Canthin-6-One 9-O-Beta-Glucopyranoside: An inhibitor of SARS-CoV-2 (COVID 19) proteases PLpro and Mpro\/3CLpro","volume":"2","author":"Verma","year":"2020","journal-title":"Res. Sq."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2253","DOI":"10.1038\/s41401-023-01111-9","article-title":"Capsaicin functions as a selective degrader of STAT3 to enhance host resistance to viral infection","volume":"44","author":"Zhang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Acta Pharmacol. Sin."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Marois, I., Cloutier, A., Meunier, I., Weingartl, H.M., Cantin, A.M., and Richter, M.V. (2014). Inhibition of influenza virus replication by targeting broad host cell pathways. PLoS ONE, 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0110631"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Trischitta, P., Tamburello, M.P., Venuti, A., and Pennisi, R. (2024). Pseudovirus-Based Systems for Screening Natural Antiviral Agents: A Comprehensive Review. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 25.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms25105188"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xia, B., Zheng, L., Li, Y., Sun, W., Liu, Y., Li, L., Pang, J., Chen, J., Li, J., and Cheng, H. (2023). The brief overview, antivirus and anti-SARS-CoV-2 activity, quantitative methods, and pharmacokinetics of cepharanthine: A potential small-molecule drug against COVID-19. Front. Pharmacol., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2023.1098972"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, K., Hong, B., Wang, S., Lou, F., You, Y., Hu, R., Shafqat, A., Fan, H., and Tong, Y. (2023). Pharmacological Activity of Cepharanthine. Molecules, 28.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules28135019"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"483","DOI":"10.1038\/s41401-021-00668-7","article-title":"A multi-targeting drug design strategy for identifying potent anti-SARS-CoV-2 inhibitors","volume":"43","author":"Ren","year":"2022","journal-title":"Acta Pharmacol. Sin."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1038\/s41421-018-0034-1","article-title":"Emetine inhibits Zika and Ebola virus infections through two molecular mechanisms: Inhibiting viral replication and decreasing viral entry","volume":"4","author":"Yang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cell Discov."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0039821","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.00398-21","article-title":"Amaryllidaceae Alkaloid Cherylline Inhibits the Replication of Dengue and Zika Viruses","volume":"65","author":"Ka","year":"2021","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ren, J., Zeng, W., Jiang, C., Li, C., Zhang, C., Cao, H., Li, W., and He, Q. (2022). Inhibition of Porcine Epidemic Diarrhea Virus by Cinchonine via Inducing Cellular Autophagy. Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2022.856711"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hegazy, A., Soltane, R., Alasiri, A., Mostafa, I., Metwaly, A.M., Eissa, I.H., Mahmoud, S.H., Allayeh, A.K., Shama, N.M.A., and Khalil, A.A. (2024). Anti-rheumatic colchicine phytochemical exhibits potent antiviral activities against avian and seasonal Influenza A viruses (IAVs) via targeting different stages of IAV replication cycle. BMC Complement. Med. Ther., 24.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12906-023-04303-2"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25806","DOI":"10.1038\/srep25806","article-title":"Targeting human respiratory syncytial virus transcription anti-termination factor M2-1 to inhibit in vivo viral replication","volume":"6","author":"Bailly","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Diot, C., Richard, C.-A., Risso-Ballester, J., Martin, D., Fix, J., El\u00e9ou\u00ebt, J.-F., Sizun, C., Rameix-Welti, M.-A., and Galloux, M. (2023). Hardening of Respiratory Syncytial Virus Inclusion Bodies by Cyclopamine Proceeds through Perturbation of the Interactions of the M2-1 Protein with RNA and the P Protein. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 24.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202306.1779.v1"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1186\/s13567-023-01165-x","article-title":"Screening antivirals with a mCherry-expressing recombinant bovine respiratory syncytial virus: A proof of concept using cyclopamine","volume":"54","author":"Fix","year":"2023","journal-title":"Vet. Res."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110166","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virol.2024.110166","article-title":"Dehydroevodiamine inhibits PEDV through regulateing ERK1\/2 MAPK pathway in Vero cells","volume":"598","author":"Li","year":"2024","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136","DOI":"10.1093\/jac\/dku349","article-title":"Strain-specific antiviral activity of iminosugars against human influenza A viruses","volume":"70","author":"Hussain","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Antimicrob. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105269","DOI":"10.1016\/j.antiviral.2022.105269","article-title":"Antiviral effects of deoxynojirimycin (DNJ)-based iminosugars in dengue virus-infected primary dendritic cells","volume":"199","author":"Perera","year":"2022","journal-title":"Antivir. Res."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bhushan, G., Lim, L., Bird, I., Chothe, S.K., Nissly, R.H., and Kuchipudi, S.V. (2020). Iminosugars With Endoplasmic Reticulum \u03b1-Glucosidase Inhibitor Activity Inhibit ZIKV Replication and Reverse Cytopathogenicity in vitro. Front. Microbiol., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2020.00531"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"196","DOI":"10.1016\/j.antiviral.2017.06.006","article-title":"Emetine inhibits replication of RNA and DNA viruses without generating drug-resistant virus variants","volume":"144","author":"Khandelwal","year":"2017","journal-title":"Antivir. Res."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"387","DOI":"10.1021\/acsptsci.2c00045","article-title":"Different Aspects of Emetine\u2019s Capabilities as a Highly Potent SARS-CoV-2 Inhibitor against COVID-19","volume":"5","author":"Valipour","year":"2022","journal-title":"ACS Pharmacol. Transl. Sci."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bleasel, M.D., and Peterson, G.M. (2020). Emetine, ipecac, ipecac alkaloids and analogues as potential antiviral agents for coronaviruses. Pharmaceuticals, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/ph13030051"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wei, W., Du, H., Shao, C., Zhou, H., Lu, Y., Yu, L., Wan, H., and He, Y. (2019). Screening of antiviral components of Ma Huang Tang and investigation on the ephedra alkaloids efficacy on influenza virus type A. Front. Pharmacol., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2019.00961"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4066","DOI":"10.1021\/acsinfecdis.4c00600","article-title":"Fangchinoline Inhibits Zika Virus by Disrupting Virus Internalization","volume":"10","author":"Yang","year":"2024","journal-title":"ACS Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wan, Z., Lu, Y., Liao, Q., Wu, Y., and Chen, X. (2012). Fangchinoline inhibits human immunodeficiency virus type 1 replication by interfering with gp160 proteolytic processing. PLoS ONE, 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0039225"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"301","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virs.2024.02.006","article-title":"Identification of fangchinoline as a broad-spectrum enterovirus inhibitor through reporter virus based high-content screening","volume":"39","author":"Zhang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Virol. Sin."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1612","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-023-27954-0","article-title":"Antiviral activities of plant-derived indole and \u03b2-carboline alkaloids against human and avian influenza viruses","volume":"13","author":"Hegazy","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0039623","DOI":"10.1128\/jvi.00396-23","article-title":"On a path toward a broad-spectrum anti-viral: Inhibition of HIV-1 and coronavirus replication by SR kinase inhibitor harmine","volume":"97","author":"Dahal","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.01467-12","article-title":"Inhibition of Chikungunya virus replication by harringtonine, a novel antiviral that suppresses viral protein expression","volume":"57","author":"Kaur","year":"2013","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lai, Z.Z., Ho, Y.J., and Lu, J.W. (2020). Harringtonine inhibits zika virus infection through multiple mechanisms. Molecules, 25.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules25184082"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124352","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijbiomac.2023.124352","article-title":"Molecular insights into the inhibition mechanism of harringtonine against essential proteins associated with SARS-CoV-2 entry","volume":"240","author":"Yang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol. Macromol."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dong, H.J., Wang, Z.-H., Meng, W., Li, C.-C., Hu, Y.-X., Zhou, L., and Wang, X.-J. (2018). The natural compound homoharringtonine presents broad antiviral activity in vitro and in vivo. Viruses, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/v10110601"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1595","DOI":"10.1002\/jmv.25494","article-title":"Inhibitory effects of homoharringtonine on foot and mouth disease virus in vitro","volume":"91","author":"Gong","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Med. Virol."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Harisha, K.R., Kailaje, V., Kondreddi, R.R., Gudla, C.S., Singh, S., Ramakrishnaiah, S., Isloor, S., Narayanan, S., Shandil, R.K., and Rudramurthy, G.R. (2025). Homoharringtonine Inhibits CVS-11 and Clinical Isolates of Rabies Virus In Vitro: Identified via High-Throughput Screening of an FDA-Approved Drug Library. Viruses, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/v17070945"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Neerukonda, S.N. (2020). A Review on SARS-CoV-2 Virology, Pathophysiology. Pathogens, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens9060426"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105615","DOI":"10.18632\/oncotarget.22350","article-title":"Indirubin, a bisindole alkaloid from Isatis indigotica, reduces H1N1 susceptibility in stressed mice by regulating MAVS signaling","volume":"8","author":"Jie","year":"2017","journal-title":"Oncotarget"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"925830","DOI":"10.1155\/2012\/925830","article-title":"Antiviral activity of Isatis indigotica extract and its derived indirubin against Japanese encephalitis virus","volume":"2012","author":"Chang","year":"2012","journal-title":"Evid.-Based Complement. Altern. Med."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Medina-Moreno, S., Dowling, T.C., Zapata, J.C., Le, N.M., Sausville, E., Bryant, J., Redfield, R.R., and Heredia, A. (2017). Targeting of CDK9 with indirubin 3\u2032-monoxime safely and durably reduces HIV viremia in chronically infected humanized mice. PLoS ONE, 12.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0183425"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153440","DOI":"10.1016\/j.phymed.2020.153440","article-title":"Lycorine, a non-nucleoside RNA dependent RNA polymerase inhibitor, as potential treatment for emerging coronavirus infections","volume":"86","author":"Jin","year":"2021","journal-title":"Phytomedicine"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"88","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virol.2020.04.009","article-title":"Antiviral activity of lycorine against Zika virus in vivo and in vitro","volume":"546","author":"Chen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1465","DOI":"10.1007\/s12250-021-00438-z","article-title":"In Vitro Inhibition of Alphaviruses by Lycorine","volume":"36","author":"Li","year":"2021","journal-title":"Virol. Sin."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.1038\/s42003-022-03090-9","article-title":"Identification of SARS-CoV-2 inhibitors targeting Mpro and PLpro using in-cell-protease assay","volume":"5","author":"Narayanan","year":"2022","journal-title":"Commun. Biol."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fielding, B.C., da Silva Maia Bezerra Filho, C., Ismail, N.S.M., and de Sousa, D.P. (2020). Alkaloids: Therapeutic potential against human coronaviruses. Molecules, 25.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules25235496"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1683","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.jnatprod.5b00325","article-title":"Antiviral Matrine-Type Alkaloids from the Rhizomes of Sophora tonkinensis","volume":"78","author":"Pan","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Nat. Prod."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"132408","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijbiomac.2024.132408","article-title":"Matrine exhibits antiviral activities against PEDV by directly targeting Spike protein of the virus and inducing apoptosis via the MAPK signaling pathway","volume":"270","author":"Qiao","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol. Macromol."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"484","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.39.2.484","article-title":"Michellamine B, a novel plant alkaloid, inhibits human immunodeficiency virus-induced cell killing by at least two distinct mechanism","volume":"39","author":"McMahon","year":"1995","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5825","DOI":"10.1002\/jmv.27117","article-title":"Inhibitory effect on SARS-CoV-2 infection of neferine by blocking Ca2+-dependent membrane fusion","volume":"93","author":"Yang","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Med. Virol."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6380","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-025-89736-0","article-title":"Effects of organic salts of virucidal and antiviral compounds from Nelumbo nucifera and Kaempferia parviflora against SARS-CoV-2","volume":"15","author":"Yang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kumar, A., Sharma, M., Richardson, C.D., and Kelvin, D.J. (2022). Potential of Natural Alkaloids From Jadwar (Delphinium denudatum) as Inhibitors Against Main Protease of COVID-19: A Molecular Modeling Approach. Front. Mol. Biosci., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmolb.2022.898874"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"308","DOI":"10.1007\/s13337-020-00619-6","article-title":"Piperine, an alkaloid of black pepper seeds can effectively inhibit the antiviral enzymes of Dengue and Ebola viruses, an in silico molecular docking study","volume":"31","author":"Nag","year":"2020","journal-title":"Virusdisease"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4901","DOI":"10.1111\/febs.16397","article-title":"Alphavirus antivirals targeting RNA-dependent RNA polymerase domain of nsP4 divulged using surface plasmon resonance","volume":"289","author":"Pareek","year":"2022","journal-title":"FEBS J."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.29328\/journal.ijcv.1001008","article-title":"Pseudoephedrine protects mice from infection of H1N1 virus","volume":"4","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Clin. Virol."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5847","DOI":"10.1002\/ptr.7245","article-title":"Pseudoephedrine and its derivatives antagonize wild and mutated severe acute respiratory syndrome-CoV-2 viruses through blocking virus invasion and antiinflammatory effect","volume":"35","author":"Yu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Phytother. Res."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1347","DOI":"10.1038\/s41401-020-00556-6","article-title":"Identification of SARS-CoV-2 entry inhibitors among already approved drugs","volume":"42","author":"Yang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Acta Pharmacol. Sin."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105127","DOI":"10.1016\/j.antiviral.2021.105127","article-title":"Broad spectrum anti-coronavirus activity of a series of anti-malaria quinoline analogues","volume":"193","author":"Persoons","year":"2021","journal-title":"Antivir. Res."},{"key":"ref_94","first-page":"107","article-title":"In Silico Identification of Clinically Approved Medicines Against the main Protease of SARS-CoV-2\u2014A Causative Agent of COVID-19","volume":"11","author":"Mamidala","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. J. Life Sci. Pharma Res."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virusres.2018.07.018","article-title":"Drug repurposing of quinine as antiviral against dengue virus infection","volume":"255","author":"Malakar","year":"2018","journal-title":"Virus Res."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"D\u2019alessandro, S., Scaccabarozzi, D., Signorini, L., Perego, F., Ilboudo, D.P., Ferrante, P., and Delbue, S. (2020). The use of antimalarial drugs against viral infection. Microorganisms, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms8010085"},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gro\u00dfe, M., Ruetalo, N., Layer, M., Hu, D., Businger, R., Rheber, S., Setz, C., Rauch, P., Auth, J., and Fr\u00f6ba, M. (2021). Quinine inhibits infection of human cell lines with SARS-CoV-2. Viruses, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/v13040647"},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lin, S., Wang, X., Guo, H., Dai, N., Tang, R.W.-L., Lee, H.C., Leung, K.W., Dong, T.T.-X., Webb, S.E., and Miller, A.L. (2023). The Ethanol Extract of Evodiae Fructus and Its Ingredient, Rutaecarpine, Inhibit Infection of SARS-CoV-2 and Inflammatory Responses. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms24010762"},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1654","DOI":"10.1007\/s12010-021-03526-8","article-title":"Pre-treatment with Scopolamine Naturally Suppresses Japanese Encephalitis Viral Load in Embryonated Chick Through Regulation of Multiple Signaling Pathways","volume":"193","author":"Bhattacharjee","year":"2021","journal-title":"Appl. Biochem. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3792","DOI":"10.3892\/etm.2017.4958","article-title":"Sophocarpine against enterovirus 71 in vitro","volume":"14","author":"Jin","year":"2017","journal-title":"Exp. Ther. Med."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jep.2019.02.045","article-title":"Antiviral activity of sophoridine against enterovirus 71 in vitro","volume":"236","author":"Ren","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Ethnopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"197","DOI":"10.1016\/j.micpath.2017.11.047","article-title":"Neuroprotective effect of (-)-tetrahydropalmatine in Japanese encephalitis virus strain GP-78 infected mouse model","volume":"114","author":"Lixia","year":"2018","journal-title":"Microb. Pathog."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kim, D.E., Min, J.S., Jang, M.S., Lee, J.Y., Shin, Y.S., Park, C.M., Song, J.H., Kim, H.R., Kim, S., and Jin, Y.-H. (2019). Natural bis-benzylisoquinoline alkaloids-tetrandrine, fangchinoline, and cepharanthine, inhibit human coronavirus oc43 infection of mrc-5 human lung cells. Biomolecules, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/biom9110696"},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e206","DOI":"10.1002\/mco2.206","article-title":"Antiviral effects and tissue exposure of tetrandrine against SARS-CoV-2 infection and COVID-19","volume":"4","author":"Liu","year":"2023","journal-title":"MedComm"},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2471","DOI":"10.1002\/ptr.6700","article-title":"Natural products and their derivatives against coronavirus: A review of the non-clinical and pre-clinical data","volume":"34","author":"Islam","year":"2020","journal-title":"Phytother. Res."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"160","DOI":"10.1016\/j.antiviral.2010.08.009","article-title":"Identification of phenanthroindolizines and phenanthroquinolizidines as novel potent anti-coronaviral agents for porcine enteropathogenic coronavirus transmissible gastroenteritis virus and human severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus","volume":"88","author":"Yang","year":"2010","journal-title":"Antivir. Res."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10037","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-017-08815-z","article-title":"Tylophorine Analogs Allosterically Regulates Heat Shock Cognate Protein 70 And Inhibits Hepatitis C Virus Replication","volume":"7","author":"Wang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"197989","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virusres.2020.197989","article-title":"Natural product-derived phytochemicals as potential agents against coronaviruses: A review","volume":"284","author":"Mani","year":"2020","journal-title":"Virus Res."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"459","DOI":"10.1016\/S0145-2126(96)00125-7","article-title":"The effects of vinblastine on the expression of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 long terminal repeat","volume":"21","author":"Akan","year":"1997","journal-title":"Leuk. Res."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1920","DOI":"10.2174\/1385272821666170207114214","article-title":"Isoquinoline Alkaloids and Their Antiviral, Antibacterial, and Antifungal Activities and Structure-activity Relationship","volume":"21","author":"Qing","year":"2017","journal-title":"Curr. Org. Chem."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"398","DOI":"10.1080\/10717544.2018.1431980","article-title":"Developments in drug delivery of bioactive alkaloids derived from traditional Chinese medicine","volume":"25","author":"Zheng","year":"2018","journal-title":"Drug Deliv."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e202500760","DOI":"10.1002\/cbdv.202500760","article-title":"Herbal Bioenhancers in Pharmaceutical Drug Delivery: Mechanisms, Challenges, and Future Innovations","volume":"22","author":"Gidwani","year":"2025","journal-title":"Chem. Biodivers."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1025","DOI":"10.2147\/IJN.S38378","article-title":"Nanodrugs: Pharmacokinetics and safety","volume":"9","author":"Onoue","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Nanomed."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1569","DOI":"10.1021\/np50089a003","article-title":"Antiviral (RNA) activity of selected Amaryllidaceae isoquinoline const ituents and synthesis of related substances","volume":"55","author":"Gabrielsen","year":"1992","journal-title":"J. Nat. Prod."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"444","DOI":"10.1007\/s11655-011-0640-3","article-title":"In vivo and in vitro antiviral effects of berberine on influenza virus","volume":"17","author":"Wu","year":"2011","journal-title":"Chin. J. Integr. Med."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, Y.X., Yang, L., Wang, H.-Q., Zhao, X.-Q., Liu, T., Li, Y.-H., Zeng, Q.-X., Li, Y.-H., and Song, D.-Q. (2018). synthesis and evolution of berberine derivatives as a new class of antiviral agents against enterovirus 71 through the MEK\/ERK pathway and autophagy. Molecules, 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules23082084"},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"164","DOI":"10.1186\/s13568-020-01088-2","article-title":"Identification of the natural product berberine as an antiviral drug","volume":"10","author":"Shao","year":"2020","journal-title":"AMB Express"},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ratanakomol, T., Roytrakul, S., Wikan, N., and Smith, D.R. (2021). Berberine inhibits dengue virus through dual mechanisms. Molecules, 26.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules26185501"},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Botwina, P., Owczarek, K., Rajfur, Z., Ochman, M., Urlik, M., Nowakowska, M., Szczubia\u0142ka, K., and Pyrc, K. (2020). Berberine Hampers Influenza A Replication through. Viruses, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/v12030344"},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5185","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bmc.2017.07.006","article-title":"Discovery of berberine based derivatives as anti-influenza agent through blocking of neuraminidase","volume":"25","author":"Enkhtaivan","year":"2017","journal-title":"Bioorg. Med. Chem."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1016\/j.antiviral.2015.12.012","article-title":"Discovery of berberine, abamectin and ivermectin as antivirals against chikungunya and other alphaviruses","volume":"126","author":"Varghese","year":"2016","journal-title":"Antivir. Res."},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5567111","DOI":"10.1155\/2021\/5567111","article-title":"Designs, Synthesis, Docking Studies, and Biological Evaluation of Novel Berberine Derivatives Targeting Zika Virus","volume":"2021","author":"Nguyen","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Chem."},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Espa\u00f1o, E., Kim, J., Lee, C., Webster, R.G., and Webby, R.J. (2022). Chelerythrine as an anti-Zika virus agent: Therapeutic potential and mode of action. bioRxiv.","DOI":"10.1101\/2022.12.16.520682"},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105732","DOI":"10.1016\/j.antiviral.2023.105732","article-title":"Chelerythrine chloride inhibits Zika virus infection by targeting the viral NS4B protein","volume":"219","author":"Loe","year":"2023","journal-title":"Antivir. Res."},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"510","DOI":"10.1002\/ps.6049","article-title":"Anti-TMV activity and mode of action of three alkaloids isolated from Chelidonium majus","volume":"77","author":"Guo","year":"2021","journal-title":"Pest Manag. Sci."},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1515\/znc-2007-1-204","article-title":"Antiviral and antimicrobial profiles of selected isoquinoline alkaloids from Fumaria and Corydalis species","volume":"62","author":"Orhan","year":"2007","journal-title":"Z. Naturforschung Sect. C J. Biosci."},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dai, J.P., Wang, Q.-W., Su, Y., Gu, L.-M., Deng, H.-X., Chen, X.-X., Li, W.-Z., and Li, K.-S. (2018). Oxymatrine inhibits influenza a virus replication and inflammation via TLR4, p38 MAPK and NF-\u03baB pathways. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms19040965"},{"key":"ref_128","unstructured":"Regulation, I. (2024). Oxymatrine Modulation of TLR3 Signaling: A Dual-Action. Molecules, 29."},{"key":"ref_129","first-page":"40","article-title":"Oxymatrine inhibits target cell infection in the HCVcc system","volume":"24","author":"Chen","year":"2016","journal-title":"Zhonghua Gan Zang Bing Za Zhi"},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1080\/00071668.2023.2296929","article-title":"Antiviral effect of palmatine against infectious bronchitis virus through regulation of NF-\u03baB\/IRF7\/JAK-STAT signalling pathway and apoptosis","volume":"65","author":"Zhang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Br. Poult. Sci."},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1325","DOI":"10.1007\/s00705-010-0702-4","article-title":"Identification of palmatine as an inhibitor of West Nile virus","volume":"155","author":"Jia","year":"2010","journal-title":"Arch. Virol."},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"732","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbrc.2019.08.120","article-title":"Palmatine inhibits Zika virus infection by disrupting virus binding, entry, and stability","volume":"518","author":"Ho","year":"2019","journal-title":"Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun."},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ke, Q., Duan, K., Cheng, Y., Xu, S., Xiao, S., and Fang, L. (2023). Sanguinarine Exhibits Antiviral Activity against Porcine Reproductive and Respiratory Syndrome Virus via Multisite Inhibition Mechanisms. Viruses, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/v15030688"},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bonincontro, G., Scuderi, S.A., Marino, A., and Simonetti, G. (2023). Synergistic Effect of Plant Compounds in Combination with Conventional Antimicrobials against Biofilm of Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Candida spp.. Pharmaceuticals, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/ph16111531"},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"260","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuint.2015.07.018","article-title":"Plant alkaloids as drug leads for Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"89","author":"Ng","year":"2015","journal-title":"Neurochem. Int."},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1124\/pr.57.1.3","article-title":"Metabolism and disposition kinetics of nicotine","volume":"57","author":"Hukkanen","year":"2005","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5403757","DOI":"10.1155\/2022\/5403757","article-title":"Antimicrobial Alkaloids from Marine-Derived Fungi as Drug Leads versus COVID-19 Infection: A Computational Approach to Explore their Anti-COVID-19 Activity and ADMET Properties","volume":"2022","author":"Sweilam","year":"2022","journal-title":"Evid.-Based Complement. Altern. Med."},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Linnakoski, R., Reshamwala, D., Veteli, P., Cortina-Escribano, M., Vanhanen, H., and Marjom\u00e4ki, V. (2018). Antiviral agents from fungi: Diversity, mechanisms and potential applications. Front. Microbiol., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2018.02325"},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7313","DOI":"10.2147\/IDR.S431256","article-title":"Potentiation and Mechanism of Berberine as an Antibiotic Adjuvant Against Multidrug-Resistant Bacteria","volume":"16","author":"Zhou","year":"2023","journal-title":"Infect. Drug Resist."},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tilaoui, M., Mouse, H.A., and Zyad, A. (2021). Update and New Insights on Future Cancer Drug Candidates From Plant-Based Alkaloids. Front. Pharmacol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2021.719694"},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2509","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.2001287","article-title":"Influenza Virus and SARS-CoV-2 Vaccines","volume":"206","author":"Sandor","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Immunol."}],"container-title":["Molecules"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1420-3049\/31\/3\/539\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,3]],"date-time":"2026-02-03T16:47:05Z","timestamp":1770137225000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1420-3049\/31\/3\/539"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,3]]},"references-count":141,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,2]]}},"alternative-id":["molecules31030539"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/molecules31030539","relation":{},"ISSN":["1420-3049"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1420-3049","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,3]]}}}