{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,11]],"date-time":"2026-02-11T14:13:22Z","timestamp":1770819202782,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":41,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,6]],"date-time":"2026-02-06T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1770336000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Molecules"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Trichilia dregeana has a rich phytochemical diversity and biological activity; however, information on its metabolomic profile and antimycotoxigenic potential is limited. This study investigated different extracts of T. dregeana bark obtained with various solvents (water, ethanol, ethyl acetate, and methanol), assessing their chemical composition using LC-MS and their inhibitory activity against the aflatoxin produced by Aspergillus fungi. LC-MS analysis identified metabolites belonging to several secondary metabolite classes, including flavonoids, phenolic acids, lignan glycosides, cardiac glycosides, coumarins, cinnamic acids, and limonoids. Solvent polarity strongly influenced metabolite distribution, with water and methanol enriching polar antioxidant compounds, while ethanol and ethyl acetate extracted semipolar antimicrobial constituents. The antimycotoxigenic efficacy of T. dregeana bark extracts was evaluated against Aspergillus flavus in maize, rice, and flour matrices. Among the tested extracts, only the methanolic extract exhibited a statistically significant reduction in aflatoxin levels (\u00b5g\/kg), while the water, ethanol, and ethyl acetate extracts showed no significant inhibition. Fungal inoculation significantly increased aflatoxin levels, with maize showing the highest contamination (673.32 \u00b5g\/kg). At 50 \u00b5g\/mL extract, aflatoxin concentrations were reduced to 230.39 \u00b5g\/kg maize, 129.93 \u00b5g\/kg rice, and 143.89 \u00b5g\/kg flour, with efficacy comparable to or exceeding the commercial fungicide tenazole. Associations between solvent-dependent metabolite class distribution and aflatoxin suppression were observed; however, bioactivity was demonstrated exclusively at the crude extract level. These findings suggest that methanolic extracts of T. dregeana bark may represent a promising natural alternative to antimycotoxin agents, warranting further fractionation and mechanistic validation.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules31030578","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,6]],"date-time":"2026-02-06T16:32:59Z","timestamp":1770395579000},"page":"578","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Linking Phytochemical Diversity to Aflatoxin Suppression: LC-MS\/MS Metabolomics of Trichilia\u00a0dregeana Bark Extracts"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"31","author":[{"given":"Martha Cebile","family":"Jobe","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Food Security and Safety Niche Area, Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, North-West University, Mahikeng Campus, Mmabatho 2735, South Africa"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Babra","family":"Moyo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Food Science and Technology, University of Venda, University Rd., Thohoyandou 0950, South Africa"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3341-4114","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ntakadzeni Edwin","family":"Madala","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center of Excellence in Mass Spectrometry for Southern Africa (CEMMSA), University of Venda, University Rd., Thohoyandou 0950, South Africa"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9311-6517","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mulunda","family":"Mwanza","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Food Security and Safety Niche Area, Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, North-West University, Mahikeng Campus, Mmabatho 2735, South Africa"},{"name":"Department of Animal Health, North-West University, Mahikeng Campus, Mmabatho 2735, South Africa"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,6]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"663","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins4090663","article-title":"A three-year survey on the worldwide occurrence of mycotoxins in feedstuffs and feed","volume":"4","author":"Rodrigues","year":"2012","journal-title":"Toxins"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kumar, A. (2022). Phytoconstituents as antifungals. Phytoconstituents and Antifungals, Academic Press.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-323-91792-6.00010-8"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jscs.2010.06.006","article-title":"Impact of mycotoxins on humans and animals","volume":"15","author":"Zain","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Saudi Chem. Soc."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137775","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2023.137775","article-title":"Aflatoxins: Occurrence, biosynthesis, mechanism of action and effects, conventional\/emerging detection techniques","volume":"436","author":"Okechukwu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ahmad, T., Wang, S., and Liu, Y. (2025). Aspergillus flavus and Aflatoxins (3rd Edition). Toxins, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins17070326"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100081","DOI":"10.1016\/j.glmedi.2024.100081","article-title":"Antimicrobial resistance: Impacts, challenges, and future prospects","volume":"2","author":"Ahmed","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Med. Surg. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens4010137","article-title":"Phytogenic compounds as alternatives to in-feed antibiotics: Potentials and challenges in application","volume":"4","author":"Yang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Pathogens"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"711","DOI":"10.1111\/jpn.13922","article-title":"Assessing the potential of phytogenic feed additives: A comprehensive review on their effectiveness as a potent dietary enhancement for nonruminant in swine and poultry","volume":"108","author":"Biswas","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Anim. Physiol. Anim. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"244","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aninu.2024.01.012","article-title":"Phytogenic feed additives as natural antibiotic alternatives in animal health and production: A review of the literature of the last decade","volume":"17","author":"Wang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Anim. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Oyedeji-Amusa, M.O., Sadgrove, N.J., and Van Wyk, B.E. (2021). The Ethnobotany and Chemistry of South African Meliaceae: A Review. Plants, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/plants10091796"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e70231","DOI":"10.1002\/vms3.70231","article-title":"Evaluation of Antibacterial Activity of Trichilia dregeana Sond. (Meliaceae) Methanolic Extract Against Gram-Positive and Gram-Negative Bacteria","volume":"11","author":"Mossie","year":"2025","journal-title":"Vet. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"307","DOI":"10.25135\/rnp.277.21.06.2097","article-title":"The Limonoids and Other Constituents from the Fruits of Melia azedarach and Their Biological Activity","volume":"16","author":"Tuan","year":"2022","journal-title":"Rec. Nat. Prod."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8784390","DOI":"10.1155\/sci5\/8784390","article-title":"Antimycobacterial and Antifungal Activities of Leaf Extracts from Trichilia emetica","volume":"2024","author":"Mugabi","year":"2024","journal-title":"Scientifica"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7313","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules15107313","article-title":"Plant phenolics: Extraction, analysis, and their antioxidant and anticancer properties","volume":"15","author":"Dai","year":"2010","journal-title":"Molecules"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"296","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jfda.2013.11.001","article-title":"Effect of extraction solvent on total phenol content, total flavonoid content, and antioxidant activity of Limnophila aromatica","volume":"22","author":"Do","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Food Drug Anal."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1821","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2010.12.026","article-title":"A critical review of methods for characterization of polyphenolic compounds in fruits and vegetables","volume":"126","author":"Ignat","year":"2011","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.1016\/j.procbio.2022.10.036","article-title":"Antibacterial and antioxidant efficacy of ethyl acetate extract of Cymodocea serrulata and assess the major bioactive components in the extract using GC-MS analysis","volume":"124","author":"Narayanan","year":"2023","journal-title":"Process Biochem."},{"key":"ref_18","first-page":"53","article-title":"Effect of Extraction Solvents on Phenolic, Flavonoid and Antioxidant activities of Three Nigerian Medicinal Plants","volume":"9","author":"Anokwuru","year":"2011","journal-title":"Nat. Sci."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Singh, J., Meshram, V., and Gupta, M. (2020). Plant-Derived Quinones as a Source of Antibacterial and Anticancer Agents. Bioactive Natural Products in Drug Discovery, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-981-15-1394-7"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.1248\/bpb.29.191","article-title":"Limonoids: Overview of significant bioactive triterpenes distributed in plants kingdom","volume":"29","author":"Roy","year":"2006","journal-title":"Biol. Pharm. Bull."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4153790","DOI":"10.1155\/2021\/4153790","article-title":"Characterization and Antifungal Activity of Limonoid Constituents Isolated from Meliaceae Plants Melia dubia, Aphanamixis polystachya, and Swietenia macrophylla against Plant Pathogenic Fungi In Vitro","volume":"2021","author":"Tan","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Chem."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"446","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sajb.2024.09.021","article-title":"The in vitro cytotoxicity, genotoxicity, and LC-ToF-MS profiling of four South African plants with good antifungal activity","volume":"174","author":"Mariri","year":"2024","journal-title":"S. Afr. J. Bot."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"343","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijantimicag.2005.09.002","article-title":"Antimicrobial activity of flavonoids","volume":"26","author":"Cushnie","year":"2005","journal-title":"Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents"},{"key":"ref_24","first-page":"247","article-title":"Antioxidant, antimicrobial and anti-HCV activities of lignan extracted from flaxseed","volume":"6","author":"Barbary","year":"2010","journal-title":"Res. J. Agric. Biol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"416","DOI":"10.1016\/j.indcrop.2018.09.023","article-title":"Leaves of Magnolia liliflora Desr. as a high-potential by-product: Lignans composition, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-phytopathogenic fungal and phytotoxic activities","volume":"125","author":"Wu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ind. Crops Prod."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2005.07.042","article-title":"Phenolic compounds in plants and agri-industrial by-products: Antioxidant activity, occurrence, and potential uses","volume":"99","author":"Balasundram","year":"2006","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5413","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.jafc.7b01409","article-title":"Characterization of phenolic compounds from early and late ripening sweet cherries and their antioxidant and antifungal activities","volume":"65","author":"Wang","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Agric. Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1256","DOI":"10.1002\/jsfa.10137","article-title":"Antioxidant and antifungal activity of phenolic compounds and their relation to aflatoxin B1 occurrence in soybeans (Glycine max L.)","volume":"100","author":"Silva","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Sci. Food Agric."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103277","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jksus.2024.103277","article-title":"Antimicrobial and synergistic properties of green tea catechins against microbial pathogens","volume":"36","author":"Alkufeidy","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. King Saud Univ. Sci."},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"1000199","article-title":"Phytochemical analysis and antifungal activity of fruit leaves extract on the mycelial growth of fungal plant pathogens","volume":"4","author":"Elsherbiny","year":"2013","journal-title":"Plant Pathol. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1021\/tx9902082","article-title":"Role of Quinones in Toxicology","volume":"13","author":"Bolton","year":"2000","journal-title":"Chem. Res. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"918","DOI":"10.2174\/1570180816666191025105752","article-title":"Discovery, Gingerol Derivatives as 14\u03b1-demethylase Inhibitors: Design and Development of Natural, Safe Antifungals for Immune-compromised Patients","volume":"17","author":"Sharma","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lett. Drug Des. Discov."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mthembu, S.X.H., Dludla, P.V., Ziqubu, K., Nyambuya, T.M., Kappo, A.P., Madoroba, E., Nyawo, T.A., Nkambule, B.B., Silvestri, S., and Muller, C.J.F. (2021). The Potential Role of Polyphenols in Modulating Mitochondrial Bioenergetics within the Skeletal Muscle: A Systematic Review of Preclinical Models. Molecules, 26.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules26092791"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7437","DOI":"10.1021\/cr9004023","article-title":"Meliaceous Limonoids: Chemistry and Biological Activities","volume":"111","author":"Tan","year":"2011","journal-title":"Chem. Rev."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"572","DOI":"10.1016\/S0955-2863(02)00208-5","article-title":"Flavonoid antioxidants: Chemistry, metabolism and structure-activity relationships","volume":"13","author":"Heim","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Nutr. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153626","DOI":"10.1016\/j.phymed.2021.153626","article-title":"Antibacterial plant compounds, extracts and essential oils: An updated review on their effects and putative mechanisms of action","volume":"90","author":"Micol","year":"2021","journal-title":"Phytomedicine"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104141","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fm.2022.104141","article-title":"Plant-based natural flavonoids show strong inhibition of aflatoxin production and related gene expressions correlated with chemical structure","volume":"109","author":"Tian","year":"2023","journal-title":"Food Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Castano-Duque, L., Lebar, M.D., Mack, B.M., Lohmar, J.M., and Carter-Wientjes, C. (2024). Investigating the Impact of Flavonoids on Aspergillus flavus: Insights into Cell Wall Damage and Biofilms. J. Fungi, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/jof10090665"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jobe, M.C., and Mwanza, M. (2025). Inhibitive effect of Urginea epigea methanolic extract and silver\/zinc oxide nanoparticles on Aspergillus and aflatoxin production. PLoS ONE, 20.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0320454"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117535","DOI":"10.1016\/j.powtec.2022.117535","article-title":"Characterization of particle size and moisture content effects on mechanical and feeding behavior of milled corn (Zea mays L.) stover","volume":"405","author":"Saha","year":"2022","journal-title":"Powder Technol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.18576\/jehe\/050302","article-title":"Influence of Different Moisture Contents and Temperature on Growth and Production of Aflatoxin B1 by a Toxigenic Aspergillus flavus Isolate in Wheat Flour","volume":"5","author":"Hassane","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Ecol. Health Environ."}],"container-title":["Molecules"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1420-3049\/31\/3\/578\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,11]],"date-time":"2026-02-11T13:26:06Z","timestamp":1770816366000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1420-3049\/31\/3\/578"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,6]]},"references-count":41,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,2]]}},"alternative-id":["molecules31030578"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/molecules31030578","relation":{},"ISSN":["1420-3049"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1420-3049","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,6]]}}}