{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,7]],"date-time":"2026-09-07T16:34:49Z","timestamp":1788798889082,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":43,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,26]],"date-time":"2026-03-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1774483200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100017047","name":"Nguyen Tat Thanh University","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["2025.01.118\/H\u0110\u2014KHCN"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2025.01.118\/H\u0110\u2014KHCN"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100017047","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"award":["2025.01.118\/H\u0110\u2014KHCN"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2025.01.118\/H\u0110\u2014KHCN"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/04r9s1v23","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Molecules"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Camellia hakodae Ninh flowers are an endemic Vietnamese species with limited phytochemical and biological characterization. This study aimed to characterize the phytochemical profile and evaluate antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities of the total flower extract. Ultrasonic-assisted extraction (UAE) and maceration with methanol and ethanol at different concentrations were carried out to evaluate the efficiency of extracting total phenolic content (TPC) and total flavonoid content (TFC), quantified by colorimetric assays, along with the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities of the resulting extracts. The highest TPC (94.9 \u00b1 4.5 mg GAE\/g) and TFC (3.1 \u00b1 0.2 mg QE\/g) were obtained using UAE with 70% methanol, while maceration with 70% ethanol showed comparable TPC values. The optimized extract exhibited strong antioxidant activity with an IC50 of 29.06 \u00b5g\/mL, close to that of ascorbic acid (28.16 \u00b5g\/mL) and significant anti-inflammatory activity in the proteinase inhibition assay (IC50 = 2.72 mg\/mL) compared to acetylsalicylic acid (IC50 = 3.16 mg\/mL). GC-MS and LC-QTOF-MS\/MS analyses revealed diverse metabolites, including phenolic acids, flavonoids, fatty acids, terpenoids, and nitrogen-containing compounds, with representative constituents, such as quinic acid, catechins, flavonol glycosides, and loliolide, providing strong chemical evidence for the observed bioactivities. This integrated study demonstrates that C. hakodae flower is a rich source of multifunctional bioactive compounds and highlights its strong potential for applications in nutraceuticals, functional foods, and cosmeceuticals.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules31071088","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,26]],"date-time":"2026-03-26T13:48:41Z","timestamp":1774532921000},"page":"1088","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Phytochemical Characterization and Biological Evaluation of Camellia hakodae Ninh Flowers"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"31","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-2849-9392","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nguyen Hoang Thao","family":"My","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Pharmacy, University of Medicine and Pharmacy at Ho Chi Minh City, 41-43 \u0110inh Tien Hoang, Saigon Ward, Ho Chi Minh City 700000, Vietnam"},{"name":"Faculty of Medical Laboratory Technology, Nguyen Tat Thanh University, 300A Nguyen Tat Thanh, Xom Chieu Ward, Ho Chi Minh City 700000, Vietnam"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7585-6469","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nguyen Huu Lac","family":"Thuy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Pharmacy, University of Medicine and Pharmacy at Ho Chi Minh City, 41-43 \u0110inh Tien Hoang, Saigon Ward, Ho Chi Minh City 700000, Vietnam"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4359-9335","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Vo Thi Kim","family":"Khuyen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Pharmacy, University of Medicine and Pharmacy at Ho Chi Minh City, 41-43 \u0110inh Tien Hoang, Saigon Ward, Ho Chi Minh City 700000, Vietnam"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9479-403X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nguyen Duc","family":"Tuan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Pharmacy, University of Medicine and Pharmacy at Ho Chi Minh City, 41-43 \u0110inh Tien Hoang, Saigon Ward, Ho Chi Minh City 700000, Vietnam"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"820","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jff.2015.06.018","article-title":"Phenolics and polyphenolics in foods, beverages and spices: Antioxidant activity and health effects","volume":"18","author":"Shahidi","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Funct. Foods"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e47","DOI":"10.1017\/jns.2016.41","article-title":"Flavonoids: An overview","volume":"5","author":"Panche","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Nutr. Sci."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1348","DOI":"10.3732\/ajb.0800205","article-title":"Molecular taxonomy of Camellia (Theaceae) inferred from nrITS sequences","volume":"96","author":"Vijayan","year":"2009","journal-title":"Am. J. Bot."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Aboulwafa, M.M., Youssef, F.S., Gad, H.A., Altyar, A.E., Al-Azizi, M.M., and Ashour, M.L. (2019). A Comprehensive Insight on the Health Benefits and Phytoconstituents of Camellia sinensis and Recent Approaches for Its Quality Control. Antioxidants, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/antiox8100455"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1080\/07315724.2006.10719518","article-title":"Beneficial effects of green tea\u2014A review","volume":"25","author":"Cabrera","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e202401047","DOI":"10.1002\/cbdv.202401047","article-title":"Phytochemical Profiles and Biological Activities of Five Wild Camellia Species from Ta Dung, Vietnam","volume":"21","author":"Nguyen","year":"2024","journal-title":"Chem. Biodivers."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, T., Ma, X., Zhou, Y., Yang, H., Wang, Y., Chen, T., Chen, Q., and Deng, Y. (2023). Metabolite Profiling of External and Internal Petals in Three Different Colors of Tea Flowers (Camellia sinensis) Using Widely Targeted Metabolomics. Metabolites, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/metabo13070784"},{"key":"ref_8","first-page":"12","article-title":"Soxhlet extraction of phenolic compounds from Vernonia cinereal leaves and its antioxidant activity","volume":"11","author":"Alara","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Appl. Res. Med. Aromat. Plants"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7313","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules15107313","article-title":"Plant Phenolics: Extraction, Analysis and Their Antioxidant and Anticancer Properties","volume":"15","author":"Dai","year":"2010","journal-title":"Molecules"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, W., Zhang, X., Wang, S., Gao, X., and Zhang, X. (2024). Research Progress on Extraction and Detection Technologies of Flavonoid Compounds in Foods. Foods, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/foods13040628"},{"key":"ref_11","first-page":"92","article-title":"Modelling of microwave assisted extraction (MAE) of anthocyanins (TMA)","volume":"6","author":"Farzaneh","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Appl. Res. Med. Aromat. Plants"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8615","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms13078615","article-title":"Green Extraction of Natural Products: Concept and Principles","volume":"13","author":"Chemat","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. J. Mol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Anh, H.T.M.L., Ngan, L.P.M.M.K., Khuyen, V.T.K., Anh, L.N.H., Bao, H.H.G., Ngoc, H.L.B., and Anh, \u0110.T.Q. (2025). A Green Workflow to Determine Flavonoids from Physalis angulata L.: Extraction Optimization by Response Surface Method and Spectrophotometric Method Validation. Spectrosc. J., 3.","DOI":"10.3390\/spectroscj3040027"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"704","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.analchem.8b05112","article-title":"Accelerating Metabolite Identification in Natural Product Research: Toward an Ideal Combination of Liquid Chromatography-High-Resolution Tandem Mass Spectrometry and NMR Profiling, in Silico Databases, and Chemometrics","volume":"91","author":"Wolfender","year":"2019","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_15","first-page":"152","article-title":"Antioxidant properties of phenolic compounds","volume":"1","author":"Miller","year":"1996","journal-title":"Trends Plant Sci."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Olvera-Aguirre, G., Mendoza-Taco, M.M., Moo-Huchin, V.M., Lee-Rangel, H.A., Roque-Jim\u00e9nez, J.A., G\u00f3mez-V\u00e1zquez, A., Dzib-Cauich, D.A., Vargas-Bello-P\u00e9rez, E., and Chay-Canul, A.J. (2022). Effect of Extraction Type on Bioactive Compounds and Antioxidant Activity of Moringa oleifera Lam. Leaves. Agriculture, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/agriculture12091462"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hodo\u0219an, C., G\u00eerd, C.E., Marin, \u0218.C., Mihalache, A., Lu\u021b\u0103, E.A., Ioni\u021b\u0103, E.I., Bi\u021b\u0103, A., Gheorghe, \u015e., Feodorov, L., and Popovici, V. (2025). Phytochemical Composition and Antioxidant Activity of Traditional Plant Extracts with Biocidal Effects and Soil-Enhancing Potential. Antioxidants, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/antiox14101198"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"229","DOI":"10.1254\/jphs.CRJ04003X","article-title":"Anti-inflammatory plant flavonoids and cellular action mechanisms","volume":"96","author":"Kim","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Pharmacol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.1017\/S002966511000162X","article-title":"Flavonoids as anti-inflammatory agents","volume":"69","author":"Serafini","year":"2010","journal-title":"Proc. Nutr. Soc."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"537","DOI":"10.1007\/s00011-009-0037-3","article-title":"Flavonoids as anti-inflammatory agents: Implications in cancer and cardiovascular disease","volume":"58","author":"Villares","year":"2009","journal-title":"Inflamm. Res."},{"key":"ref_21","first-page":"394","article-title":"Polyphenols, intracellular signalling and inflammation","volume":"43","author":"Santangelo","year":"2007","journal-title":"Ann.-Ist. Super. Sanita"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"673","DOI":"10.1016\/S0031-6997(24)01472-8","article-title":"The effects of plant flavonoids on mammalian cells: Implications for inflammation, heart disease, and cancer","volume":"52","author":"Middleton","year":"2000","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1152","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lwt.2014.06.004","article-title":"Value of off-season fresh Camellia sinensis leaves: Antiradical activity, total phenolics content and catechin profiles","volume":"59","author":"Baptista","year":"2014","journal-title":"LWT\u2013Food Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pereira, A.G., Fraga-Corral, M., Silva, A., Barroso, M.F., Grosso, C., Carpena, M., Garcia-Perez, P., Perez-Gregorio, R., Cassani, L., and Simal-Gandara, J. (2024). Unraveling the Bioactive Potential of Camellia japonica Edible Flowers: Profiling Antioxidant Substances and In Vitro Bioactivity Assessment. Pharmaceuticals, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/ph17070946"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chaves, J.O., de Souza, M.C., da Silva, L.C., Lachos-Perez, D., Torres-Mayanga, P.C., Machado, A.P.F., Forster-Carneiro, T., V\u00e1zquez-Espinosa, M., Gonz\u00e1lez-de-Peredo, A.V., and Barbero, G.F. (2020). Extraction of Flavonoids From Natural Sources Using Modern Techniques. Front. Chem., 8.","DOI":"10.3389\/fchem.2020.507887"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"296","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jfda.2013.11.001","article-title":"Effect of extraction solvent on total phenol content, total flavonoid content, and antioxidant activity of Limnophila aromatica","volume":"22","author":"Do","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Food Drug Anal."},{"key":"ref_27","first-page":"20200023","article-title":"Ultrasound-assisted extraction of phenolic compounds from avocado leaves (Persea americana Mill. var. Drymifolia): Optimization and modeling","volume":"18","author":"Sampieri","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Chem. React. Eng."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"176","DOI":"10.1007\/s43994-023-00031-y","article-title":"Impact of different solvents on extraction yield, phenolic composition, in vitro antioxidant and antibacterial activities of deseeded Opuntia stricta fruit","volume":"9","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Umm Al-Qura Univ. Appl. Sci."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3520675","DOI":"10.1155\/2019\/3520675","article-title":"Impact of Different Extraction Solvents on Phenolic Content and Antioxidant Potential of Pinus densiflora Bark Extract","volume":"2019","author":"Venkatesan","year":"2019","journal-title":"BioMed Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"401","DOI":"10.1078\/0944-7113-00060","article-title":"Synergy and other interactions in phytomedicines","volume":"8","author":"Williamson","year":"2001","journal-title":"Phytomedicine"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Silva, J., Alves, C., Martins, A., Susano, P., Sim\u00f5es, M., Guedes, M., Rehfeldt, S., Pinteus, S., Gaspar, H., and Rodrigues, A. (2021). Loliolide, a New Therapeutic Option for Neurological Diseases? In Vitro Neuroprotective and Anti-Inflammatory Activities of a Monoterpenoid Lactone Isolated from Codium tomentosum. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms22041888"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Han, E.J., Fernando, I.P.S., Kim, H.S., Lee, D.S., Kim, A., Je, J.G., Seo, M.J., Jee, Y.H., Jeon, Y.J., and Kim, S.Y. (2021). (-)-Loliolide Isolated from Sargassum horneri Suppressed Oxidative Stress and Inflammation by Activating Nrf2\/HO-1 Signaling in IFN-\u03b3\/TNF-\u03b1-Stimulated HaCaT Keratinocytes. Antioxidants, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/antiox10060856"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"355","DOI":"10.3390\/nu2030355","article-title":"Omega-3 Fatty Acids and Inflammatory Processes","volume":"2","author":"Calder","year":"2010","journal-title":"Nutrients"},{"key":"ref_34","first-page":"471","article-title":"Patrick, The role of phytosterols and phytosterolins in immune modulation: A review of the past 10 years","volume":"4","author":"Bouic","year":"2001","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Clin. Nutr. Metab. Care"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"78","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1099-1573(199902)13:1<78::AID-PTR384>3.0.CO;2-F","article-title":"Topical anti-inflammatory activity of phytosterols isolated from Eryngium foetidum on chronic and acute inflammation models","volume":"13","year":"1999","journal-title":"Phytother. Res."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1033","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1097-0010(20000515)80:7<1033::AID-JSFA595>3.0.CO;2-T","article-title":"Chlorogenic acids and other cinnamates\u2014Nature, occurrence, dietary burden, absorption and metabolism","volume":"80","author":"Clifford","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Sci. Food Agric."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, Z., Guan, Y., Yang, R., Li, J., Wang, J., and Jia, A.Q. (2020). Anti-inflammatory activity of 3-cinnamoyltribuloside and its metabolomic analysis in LPS-activated RAW 264.7 cells. BMC Complement. Med. Ther., 20.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12906-020-03115-y"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhao, Y., Zhao, N., Kollie, L., Yang, D., Zhang, X., Zhang, H., and Liang, Z. (2024). Sasanquasaponin from Camellia oleifera Abel Exerts an Anti-Inflammatory Effect in RAW 264.7 Cells via Inhibition of the NF-\u03baB\/MAPK Signaling Pathways. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 25.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms25042149"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.5483\/BMBRep.2012.45.3.177","article-title":"Anti-inflammatory activity of Camellia japonica oil","volume":"45","author":"Kim","year":"2012","journal-title":"BMB Rep."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111073","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fct.2019.111073","article-title":"Terminalia bellirica extract induces anticancer activity through modulation of apoptosis and autophagy in oral squamous cell carcinoma","volume":"136","author":"Patra","year":"2020","journal-title":"Food Chem. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_41","first-page":"97","article-title":"Phytochemical screening and free radical scavenging activities of orange baby carrot and carrot (Daucus carota Linn.) root crude extracts","volume":"5","author":"Chatatikun","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Chem. Pharm. Res."},{"key":"ref_42","first-page":"643285","article-title":"Antioxidant Activity and Total Phenolic and Flavonoid Content of Various Solvent Extracts from In Vivo and In Vitro Grown Trifolium pratense L. (Red Clover)","volume":"2015","author":"Mohajer","year":"2015","journal-title":"BioMed Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.3109\/13880209509088150","article-title":"Antiprotease and Membrane Stabilizing Activities of Extracts of Fagara zanthoxyloides, Olax subscorpioides and Tetrapleura tetraptera","volume":"33","author":"Oyedepo","year":"1995","journal-title":"Int. J. Pharmacogn."}],"container-title":["Molecules"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1420-3049\/31\/7\/1088\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,1]],"date-time":"2026-04-01T15:48:11Z","timestamp":1775058491000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1420-3049\/31\/7\/1088"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,26]]},"references-count":43,"journal-issue":{"issue":"7","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,4]]}},"alternative-id":["molecules31071088"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/molecules31071088","relation":{},"ISSN":["1420-3049"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1420-3049","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,26]]}}}