{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,18]],"date-time":"2026-08-18T04:58:31Z","timestamp":1787029111305,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":119,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,12]],"date-time":"2026-04-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1775952000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Molecules"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The efficacy of traditional antimicrobial treatments has been largely compromised due to the high occurrence of multidrug-resistant (MDR) pathogens, therefore underlining the limitations of existing drug delivery mechanisms. Pathogens resist pharmacological treatment via different mechanisms, including efflux pump overexpression, biofilm formation, and enzymatic destruction. The application of nanorobotics or controllable nanoscale devices has gained considerable attention for overcoming shortcomings while connecting biomedical engineering, materials science, and microbiology. Despite advancements in nanomedicine, there is still no suitable nanorobotic system applicable against MDR pathogens. Previous studies highlighted device categories and materials but did not explain the detailed nanorobotic mobility, sensing, and programmability to counteract biological resistance. This review combines cross-disciplinary discoveries to design a mechanistic and translational model for nanorobotics effective in controlling infectious diseases while focusing on the advancements in nanorobotic technologies over the past six years (2020\u20132025), with emphasis on translational readiness, biosafety issues, scalability, regulation, and their mechanistic ability to overwhelm MDR complications. Databases from different publishers, including PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science, were used to select studies focusing on the potential of emerging nanorobotic therapeutic technologies, such as magnetic microrobots, catalytic nanoswimmers, and DNA origami nanodevices, and their application to bacterial biofilms and antibiotic drug delivery. Evidence from the literature shows that magnetically driven microrobots, catalytic nanoswimmers, and DNA origami structures can actively destroy biofilms, enhance antibiotic penetration, and perform site-specific antimicrobial administration. Nevertheless, most of these innovations remain in the preclinical or prototype stage, hindered by biosafety issues, immunological reactivity, poor routing precision, energy source optimization, and a lack of regulatory and ethical frameworks, which are major challenges for clinical translation.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules31081268","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,13]],"date-time":"2026-04-13T07:29:29Z","timestamp":1776065369000},"page":"1268","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Nanorobotic Approaches Against Multidrug-Resistant Infections: Design, Principle, Mechanistic Innovation, Translational Challenges and Biomedical Applications"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"31","author":[{"given":"Umair","family":"Sayad","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacy, Shaheed Benazir Bhutto University, Sheringal 18050, Pakistan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0162-4478","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Shafiq Ur","family":"Rahman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacy, Shaheed Benazir Bhutto University, Sheringal 18050, Pakistan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Atif Ali Khan","family":"Khalil","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biotechnology, Yeungnam University, Gyeongsan 38541, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1117-1246","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Abid","family":"Ullah","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacy, Shaheed Benazir Bhutto University, Sheringal 18050, Pakistan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Shafi","family":"Ullah","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, Superior University, Lahore 53700, Pakistan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sultan Mehtap","family":"B\u00fcy\u00fcker","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmaceutical Toxicology, School of Pharmacy, Medipol University, Istanbul 34810, Turkey"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2000","DOI":"10.4081\/jphia.2022.2000","article-title":"National action plan on antimicrobial resistance: An evaluation of implementation in the World Health Organization Africa region","volume":"13","author":"Fuller","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Public Health Afr."},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"28","article-title":"The growing threat of antibiotic resistance: Mechanisms, causes, consequences, and solutions","volume":"3","author":"Zulfkar","year":"2025","journal-title":"Int. J. Cogn. Neurosci. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_3","first-page":"277","article-title":"The antibiotic resistance crisis: Part 1: Causes and threats","volume":"40","author":"Ventola","year":"2015","journal-title":"Pharm. Ther."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.1038\/nrmicro3380","article-title":"Molecular mechanisms of antibiotic resistance","volume":"13","author":"Blair","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"O\u2019Neill, J. (2016). Tackling Drug-Resistant Infections Globally: Final Report and Recommendations, HM Government."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"655","DOI":"10.1038\/nrd4363","article-title":"Overcoming the challenges in administering biopharmaceuticals: Formulation and delivery strategies","volume":"13","author":"Mitragotri","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Drug Discov."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Peer, D., Karp, J.M., Hong, S., Farokhzad, O.C., Margalit, R., and Langer, R. (2020). Nanocarriers as an emerging platform for cancer therapy. Nano-Enabled Medical Applications, Jenny Stanford Publishing.","DOI":"10.1201\/9780429399039-2"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"938","DOI":"10.61927\/igmin271","article-title":"Nanorobots in Medicine: Advancing Healthcare through Molecular Engineering: A Comprehensive Review","volume":"2","author":"Antil","year":"2024","journal-title":"Igmin Res."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"623","DOI":"10.1038\/nrmicro2415","article-title":"The biofilm matrix","volume":"8","author":"Flemming","year":"2010","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"76","DOI":"10.1186\/s13756-019-0533-3","article-title":"Antibiotics versus biofilm: An emerging battleground in microbial communities","volume":"8","author":"Sharma","year":"2019","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Resist. Infect. Control"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vallet-Reg\u00ed, M., Gonz\u00e1lez, B., and Izquierdo-Barba, I. (2019). Nanomaterials as promising alternative in the infection treatment. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms20153806"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"555","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.nanolett.5b04221","article-title":"Cellular cargo delivery: Toward assisted fertilization by sperm-carrying micromotors","volume":"16","author":"Schwarz","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nano Lett."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2400779","DOI":"10.1002\/aisy.202400779","article-title":"Multi-Module Micro\/Nanorobots for Biomedical and Environmental Remediation Applications","volume":"7","author":"Zhu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Adv. Intell. Syst."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1074","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nano.2012.03.002","article-title":"Targeted cargo delivery using a rotating nickel nanowire","volume":"8","author":"Zhang","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nanomed. Nanotechnol. Biol. Med."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12798","DOI":"10.1002\/ange.202002740","article-title":"DNA nanostructures for targeted antimicrobial delivery","volume":"132","author":"Mela","year":"2020","journal-title":"Angew. Chem."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43352","DOI":"10.1021\/acsami.0c08444","article-title":"Magnetotactic T-budbots to kill-n-clean biofilms","volume":"12","author":"Bhuyan","year":"2020","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Afonin, K.A., Dobrovolskaia, M.A., Church, G., and Bathe, M. (2021). Opportunities, barriers, and a strategy for overcoming translational challenges to therapeutic nucleic acid nanotechnology. Therapeutic RNA Nanotechnology, Jenny Stanford Publishing.","DOI":"10.1021\/acsnano.0c04753"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eaam6431","DOI":"10.1126\/scirobotics.aam6431","article-title":"Micro\/nanorobots for biomedicine: Delivery, surgery, sensing, and detoxification","volume":"2","author":"Li","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Robot."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.21202\/jdtl.2023.4","article-title":"Medical nanorobots in the focus of law","volume":"1","author":"Gulyaeva","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Digit. Technol. Law"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20240056","DOI":"10.1515\/ntrev-2024-0056","article-title":"A deep dive into AI integration and advanced nanobiosensor technologies for enhanced bacterial infection monitoring","volume":"13","author":"Khan","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nanotechnol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2502315","DOI":"10.1002\/smll.202502315","article-title":"Nanoparticle Therapeutics in Clinical Perspective: Classification, Marketed Products, and Regulatory Landscape","volume":"21","author":"Desai","year":"2025","journal-title":"Small"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101936","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mtbio.2025.101936","article-title":"Micro\/nanorobots in antimicrobial therapy: Addressing challenges of antibiotic resistance","volume":"32","author":"Chen","year":"2025","journal-title":"Mater. Today Bio"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1259","DOI":"10.1080\/17425247.2019.1676228","article-title":"Micro-nanorobots: Important considerations when developing novel drug delivery platforms","volume":"16","author":"Singh","year":"2019","journal-title":"Expert Opin. Drug Deliv."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Giri, G., Maddahi, Y., and Zareinia, K. (2021). A brief review on challenges in design and development of nanorobots for medical applications. Appl. Sci., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/app112110385"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1419","DOI":"10.1039\/D3LC00909B","article-title":"AI-enhanced biomedical micro\/nanorobots in microfluidics","volume":"24","author":"Dong","year":"2024","journal-title":"Lab A Chip"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2300093","DOI":"10.1002\/aisy.202300093","article-title":"Soft Bio-Microrobots: Toward Biomedical Applications","volume":"6","author":"Wang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Adv. Intell. Syst."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1177\/15353702211052280","article-title":"Emerging technologies and their impact on regulatory science","volume":"247","author":"Anklam","year":"2022","journal-title":"Exp. Biol. Med."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Iftekhar, K., Sajid, K., Shabbir, M., and Khan, M. (2026). ADME of nanoprecision medicines: Understanding the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of nanoprecision medicines. Nanotheranostics and Precision Oncology, Elsevier.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-443-34671-2.00022-0"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"991","DOI":"10.1038\/nmat3776","article-title":"Stimuli-responsive nanocarriers for drug delivery","volume":"12","author":"Mura","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nat. Mater."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.bioconjchem.4c00480","article-title":"Breaking through physiological barriers: Nanorobotic strategies for active drug delivery","volume":"36","author":"Mao","year":"2024","journal-title":"Bioconjugate Chem."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e70030","DOI":"10.1002\/smb2.70030","article-title":"The Next Frontier: Micro\/Nanorobots Operating Inside the Living Body","volume":"2","author":"Yu","year":"2026","journal-title":"SmartBot"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"505","DOI":"10.1021\/mp800051m","article-title":"Factors affecting the clearance and biodistribution of polymeric nanoparticles","volume":"5","author":"Alexis","year":"2008","journal-title":"Mol. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"703","DOI":"10.2217\/17435889.3.5.703","article-title":"Clearance properties of nano-sized particles and molecules as imaging agents: Considerations and caveats","volume":"3","author":"Longmire","year":"2008","journal-title":"Nanomedicine"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24174","DOI":"10.1021\/acsnano.5c03911","article-title":"Technology Roadmap of Micro\/Nanorobots","volume":"19","author":"Ju","year":"2025","journal-title":"ACS Nano"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.1109\/JPROC.2014.2385105","article-title":"Biomedical applications of untethered mobile milli\/microrobots","volume":"103","author":"Sitti","year":"2015","journal-title":"Proc. IEEE"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1259","DOI":"10.1039\/C2NR32554C","article-title":"Bio-inspired magnetic swimming microrobots for biomedical applications","volume":"5","author":"Peyer","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nanoscale"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1033","DOI":"10.1007\/s10544-012-9696-x","article-title":"Bacterial microsystems and microrobots","volume":"14","author":"Martel","year":"2012","journal-title":"Biomed. Microdevices"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"297","DOI":"10.1038\/nature04586","article-title":"Folding DNA to create nanoscale shapes and patterns","volume":"440","author":"Rothemund","year":"2006","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Su, H.-J., Castro, C.E., Marras, A.E., and Hudoba, M. (2012). Design and fabrication of DNA origami mechanisms and machines. Advances in Reconfigurable Mechanisms and Robots I., Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4471-4141-9_44"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"540","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-017-00459-x","article-title":"Protein-driven RNA nanostructured devices that function in vitro and control mammalian cell fate","volume":"8","author":"Shibata","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"0438","DOI":"10.34133\/research.0438","article-title":"Swarming Magnetic Fe3O4@Polydopamine-Tannic Acid Nanorobots: Integrating Antibiotic-Free Superficial Photothermal and Deep Chemical Strategies for Targeted Bacterial Elimination","volume":"7","author":"Si","year":"2024","journal-title":"Research"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2400746","DOI":"10.1002\/adhm.202400746","article-title":"Catalytic nanoparticles in biomedical applications: Exploiting advanced nanozymes for therapeutics and diagnostics","volume":"13","author":"Manoharan","year":"2024","journal-title":"Adv. Healthc. Mater."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"598","DOI":"10.1109\/TNB.2015.2423373","article-title":"An acoustic communication technique of nanorobot swarms for nanomedicine applications","volume":"14","author":"Vegni","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Nanobioscience"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3976","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.chemrev.3c00028","article-title":"Recent advances in DNA origami-engineered nanomaterials and applications","volume":"123","author":"Zhan","year":"2023","journal-title":"Chem. Rev."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9824057","DOI":"10.34133\/2022\/9824057","article-title":"Biohybrid micro-and nanorobots for intelligent drug delivery","volume":"2022","author":"Li","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cyborg Bionic Syst."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1038\/s41578-018-0022-y","article-title":"Biomedical applications of soft robotics","volume":"3","author":"Cianchetti","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Mater."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8088","DOI":"10.1039\/D0CS00309C","article-title":"Medical micro\/nanorobots in complex media","volume":"49","author":"Wu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Chem. Soc. Rev."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"021","DOI":"10.15302\/J-ENG-2015005","article-title":"Magnetic helical micro-and nanorobots: Toward their biomedical applications","volume":"1","author":"Qiu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Engineering"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lin, J., Cong, Q., and Zhang, D. (2024). Magnetic microrobots for in vivo cargo delivery: A review. Micromachines, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/mi15050664"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5333","DOI":"10.1002\/adfm.201502248","article-title":"Magnetite nanostructured porous hollow helical microswimmers for targeted delivery","volume":"25","author":"Yan","year":"2015","journal-title":"Adv. Funct. Mater."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mehrafrooz, B., Pedram, M.Z., and Ghafar-Zadeh, E. (2018). An improved method for magnetic nanocarrier drug delivery across the cell membrane. Sensors, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/s18020381"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"372","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmmm.2016.12.114","article-title":"Dynamic analysis of magnetic nanoparticles crossing cell membrane","volume":"429","author":"Pedram","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Magn. Magn. Mater."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-bioeng-010510-103409","article-title":"Microrobots for minimally invasive medicine","volume":"12","author":"Nelson","year":"2010","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9128","DOI":"10.1039\/D2SC01806C","article-title":"Enzyme-powered micro-and nano-motors: Key parameters for an application-oriented design","volume":"13","author":"Patino","year":"2022","journal-title":"Chem. Sci."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2102265","DOI":"10.1002\/adfm.202102265","article-title":"Ultrasonically propelled micro-and nanorobots","volume":"32","author":"Li","year":"2022","journal-title":"Adv. Funct. Mater."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5562","DOI":"10.1021\/acsbiomaterials.4c01191","article-title":"Light-driven microrobots for targeted drug delivery","volume":"10","author":"Cheng","year":"2024","journal-title":"ACS Biomater. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e20250021","DOI":"10.1002\/rpm.20250021","article-title":"Micro-and nanomotors in biomedical applications","volume":"3","author":"Meng","year":"2025","journal-title":"Responsive Mater."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3170","DOI":"10.1021\/nn500077a","article-title":"The environmental impact of micro\/nanomachines: A review","volume":"8","author":"Gao","year":"2014","journal-title":"Acs Nano"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11085","DOI":"10.1038\/ncomms11085","article-title":"Rotational manipulation of single cells and organisms using acoustic waves","volume":"7","author":"Ahmed","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"941","DOI":"10.1038\/nbt.3330","article-title":"Principles of nanoparticle design for overcoming biological barriers to drug delivery","volume":"33","author":"Blanco","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nat. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1038\/nrc.2016.108","article-title":"Cancer nanomedicine: Progress, challenges and opportunities","volume":"17","author":"Shi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2104123","DOI":"10.1002\/adfm.202104123","article-title":"Advanced bioresponsive multitasking hydrogels in the new era of biomedicine","volume":"31","author":"Niazi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Adv. Funct. Mater."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sharma, P.K., and Chen, C.Y. (2025). AI-Integrated Micro\/Nanorobots for Biomedical Applications: Recent Advances in Design, Fabrication, and Functions. Biosensors, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/bios15120793"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6285","DOI":"10.1021\/cr400273r","article-title":"Nano\/micromotors in (bio) chemical science applications","volume":"114","author":"Guix","year":"2014","journal-title":"Chemical Rev."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"415","DOI":"10.3389\/fbioe.2019.00415","article-title":"Overcoming physiological barriers to nanoparticle delivery\u2014Are we there yet?","volume":"7","author":"Thomas","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Bioeng. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1924","DOI":"10.1039\/D4CS00483C","article-title":"Translational nanorobotics breaking through biological membranes","volume":"54","author":"Ressnerova","year":"2025","journal-title":"Chem. Soc. Rev."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e70084","DOI":"10.1002\/nano.70084","article-title":"Antibacterial Micro\/Nanorobots: Innovations, Challenges, and Future Perspectives in Combatting Infection","volume":"7","author":"Chen","year":"2026","journal-title":"Nano Sel."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4559","DOI":"10.2174\/092986710794183024","article-title":"Nanoparticles: Functionalization and multifunctional applications in biomedical sciences","volume":"17","author":"Subbiah","year":"2010","journal-title":"Curr. Med. Chem."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, Y., Wen, X., Tan, Y., Zeng, R., Zhang, Y., Lin, T., Gong, L., and Luo, Z. (2026). Advanced nanotherapeutics for combating ocular infections: Rational design, antimicrobial mechanisms, and therapeutic breakthroughs. BMEMat, e70082.","DOI":"10.1002\/bmm2.70082"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1038\/s41579-020-0420-1","article-title":"Nanomaterial-based therapeutics for antibiotic-resistant bacterial infections","volume":"19","author":"Makabenta","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"72","DOI":"10.1186\/s12951-025-03141-3","article-title":"Navigating a challenging path: Precision disease treatment with tailored oral nano-armor-probiotics","volume":"23","author":"Chen","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Nanobiotechnol."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4301","DOI":"10.1039\/D4BM00674G","article-title":"3D-printed microrobots for biomedical applications","volume":"12","author":"Wei","year":"2024","journal-title":"Biomater. Sci."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2101991","DOI":"10.1002\/adhm.202101991","article-title":"Micro-\/Nanorobots in antimicrobial applications: Recent progress, challenges, and opportunities","volume":"11","author":"Zhang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Adv. Healthc. Mater."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, J. (2013). Nanomachines: Fundamentals and Applications, John Wiley & Sons.","DOI":"10.1002\/9783527651450"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2607","DOI":"10.1007\/s10876-024-02691-0","article-title":"Advancing Autonomous Nanomedicine: Bridging the Gap from Concept to Potential Clinical Studies","volume":"35","author":"Chohan","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Clust. Sci."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1527","DOI":"10.1002\/wnan.1527","article-title":"Stimuli-responsive nanotherapeutics for precision drug delivery and cancer therapy","volume":"11","author":"Qiao","year":"2019","journal-title":"Wiley Interdiscip. Rev. Nanomed. Nanobiotechnol."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14878","DOI":"10.1039\/D5RA09767C","article-title":"Smart microdevices for biomedical drug delivery: Endogenous stimuli as the key to safer therapeutics","volume":"16","author":"Datta","year":"2026","journal-title":"RSC Adv."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2383","DOI":"10.7150\/thno.67296","article-title":"Recent advances in nanotechnology for eradicating bacterial biofilm","volume":"12","author":"Sahli","year":"2022","journal-title":"Theranostics"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"500","DOI":"10.1007\/s13346-021-01024-2","article-title":"Current hurdles to the translation of nanomedicines from bench to the clinic","volume":"12","author":"Gonzalez","year":"2022","journal-title":"Drug Deliv. Transl. Res."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gaur, N., Sharma, N., Dahiya, A., Yadav, P., Ojha, H., Goyal, R.K., and Sharma, R.K. (2020). Toxicity and regulatory concerns for nanoformulations in medicine. The ELSI Handbook of Nanotechnology: Risk, Safety, ELSI and Commercialization, Wiley.","DOI":"10.1002\/9781119592990.ch13"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.2174\/2211738505666171023152928","article-title":"Cytotoxicity of nanomaterials: Using nanotoxicology to address the safety concerns of nanoparticles","volume":"6","author":"Saifi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Pharm. Nanotechnol."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"479","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tibtech.2023.10.004","article-title":"Targeting biofilm infections in humans using small scale robotics","volume":"42","author":"Tran","year":"2024","journal-title":"Trends Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eaaq1155","DOI":"10.1126\/scirobotics.aaq1155","article-title":"Multifunctional biohybrid magnetite microrobots for imaging-guided therapy","volume":"2","author":"Yan","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Robot."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Michaelis, C., and Grohmann, E. (2023). Horizontal gene transfer of antibiotic resistance genes in biofilms. Antibiotics, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics12020328"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4055","DOI":"10.1039\/c0cc05111j","article-title":"Molecular mechanisms of antibiotic resistance","volume":"47","author":"Wright","year":"2011","journal-title":"Chem. Commun."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"95","DOI":"10.1038\/nrmicro821","article-title":"Bacterial biofilms: From the natural environment to infectious diseases","volume":"2","author":"Costerton","year":"2004","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1804785","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.201804785","article-title":"Rationally designed DNA-origami nanomaterials for drug delivery in vivo","volume":"31","author":"Jiang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"027001","DOI":"10.1088\/0964-1726\/25\/2\/027001","article-title":"Magnetic actuated pH-responsive hydrogel-based soft micro-robot for targeted drug delivery","volume":"25","author":"Li","year":"2016","journal-title":"Smart Mater. Struct."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1402","DOI":"10.1002\/asia.200900143","article-title":"Nanorobots: The ultimate wireless self-propelled sensing and actuating devices","volume":"4","author":"Sanchez","year":"2009","journal-title":"Chem.\u2013Asian J."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1029","DOI":"10.7150\/thno.92449","article-title":"Antibacterial micro\/nanomotors: Current research progress, challenges, and opportunities","volume":"14","author":"Liu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Theranostics"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4999","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.chemrev.0c01234","article-title":"Magnetically driven micro and nanorobots","volume":"121","author":"Zhou","year":"2021","journal-title":"Chem. Rev."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, Y., Jia, M., Fan, H., Duan, J., and Fu, J. (2025). Advances in Architectural Design, Propulsion Mechanisms, and Applications of Asymmetric Nanomotors. Nanomaterials, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/nano15171333"},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4164","DOI":"10.1007\/s12274-021-3998-3","article-title":"Intelligent bio-assembly imaging-guided platform for real-time bacteria sterilizing and infectious therapy","volume":"15","author":"Zeng","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nano Res."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yrtph.2019.04.011","article-title":"Bridging communities in the field of nanomedicine","volume":"106","author":"Baconnier","year":"2019","journal-title":"Regul. Toxicol. Pharmacol. RTP"},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rana, M.N., Saifullah, M., Saeid, A., Kamal, M.M., Gao, X., and Gao, X. (2025). Protein-based micro-and nano-transporters for gut microbiota modulators: Advances in delivery strategies and gut health benefits. Front. Bioeng. Biotechnol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fbioe.2025.1706245"},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rodr\u00edguez-G\u00f3mez, F.D., Monferrer, D., Penon, O., and Rivera-Gil, P. (2025). Regulatory pathways and guidelines for nanotechnology-enabled health products: A comparative review of EU and US frameworks. Front. Med., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmed.2025.1544393"},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Monopoli, M.P., Aberg, C., Salvati, A., and Dawson, K.A. (2020). Biomolecular coronas provide the biological identity of nanosized materials. Nano-Enabled Medical Applications, Jenny Stanford Publishing.","DOI":"10.1201\/9780429399039-7"},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Guan, X., Xing, S., and Liu, Y. (2024). Engineered cell membrane-camouflaged nanomaterials for biomedical applications. Nanomaterials, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/nano14050413"},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Louro, H., and Silva, M.J. (2022). Nanotoxicology in Safety Assessment of Nanomaterials, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-88071-2"},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"James, J.J., and Sandhya, K. (2023). Integration of biosensors and drug delivery systems for biomedical applications. Applied Artificial Intelligence, CRC Press.","DOI":"10.1201\/9781003324430-26"},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5473","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.molpharmaceut.5c00488","article-title":"Pharmacokinetics and biodistribution of polymeric nanoparticles loaded with a small molecule drug in mice with alcoholic liver disease","volume":"22","author":"Ma","year":"2025","journal-title":"Mol. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1615","DOI":"10.1002\/wnan.1615","article-title":"Impact of the protein corona on nanomaterial immune response and targeting ability","volume":"12","author":"Digiacomo","year":"2020","journal-title":"Wiley Interdiscip. Rev. Nanomed. Nanobiotechnology"},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"429","DOI":"10.1021\/acsmaterialslett.2c00832","article-title":"Platelet-inspired nanotherapeutics for biomedical applications","volume":"5","author":"Yang","year":"2023","journal-title":"ACS Mater. Lett."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102909","DOI":"10.1016\/j.xcrp.2025.102909","article-title":"Engineering bacterial-based biohybrid microrobots for magnetic torque-driven control","volume":"6","author":"Regazzoni","year":"2025","journal-title":"Cell Rep. Phys. Sci."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2002203","DOI":"10.1002\/advs.202002203","article-title":"Medical micro\/nanorobots in precision medicine","volume":"7","author":"Soto","year":"2020","journal-title":"Adv. Sci."},{"key":"ref_106","first-page":"e06768","article-title":"Guidance on risk assessment of nanomaterials to be applied in the food and feed chain: Human and animal health","volume":"19","author":"Committee","year":"2021","journal-title":"EFSA J."},{"key":"ref_107","first-page":"225","article-title":"Nanotechnology: Regulatory outlook on nanomaterials and nanomedicines in United States, Europe and India","volume":"7","author":"Malik","year":"2020","journal-title":"Appl. Clin. Res. Clin. Trials Regul. Aff."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"192","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jconrel.2021.06.016","article-title":"Methodological needs in the quality and safety characterisation of nanotechnology-based health products: Priorities for method development and standardisation","volume":"336","author":"Vandebriel","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Control. Release"},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100286","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nxnano.2025.100286","article-title":"Next-gen cancer therapy: The convergence of artificial intelligence, nanotechnology, and digital twin","volume":"8","author":"Deshmukh","year":"2025","journal-title":"Next Nanotechnol."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2300540","DOI":"10.1002\/advs.202300540","article-title":"Magnetically actuated biodegradable nanorobots for active immunotherapy","volume":"10","author":"Ye","year":"2023","journal-title":"Adv. Sci."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"130","DOI":"10.1109\/TBME.2020.2990380","article-title":"Progress in nanorobotics for advancing biomedicine","volume":"68","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"238","DOI":"10.1002\/cnma.202000608","article-title":"Self-assembled Micro-nanorobots: From Assembly Mechanisms to Applications","volume":"7","author":"Wei","year":"2021","journal-title":"ChemNanoMat"},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e01633","DOI":"10.1002\/smtd.202501633","article-title":"Design Fundamentals of Nanorobots for In Vivo Applications","volume":"9","author":"Liu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Small Methods"},{"key":"ref_114","first-page":"1","article-title":"AI-Powered nanorobots: A mini review on innovations in healthcare","volume":"1","author":"Biswas","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Artif. Intell"},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shaikh, Z.P. (2025). Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning-Assisted Internet of Medical Things: Approaches Drug Discovery. Convergence of Internet of Medical Things (IoMT) and Generative AI, IGI Global.","DOI":"10.4018\/979-8-3693-6180-1.ch015"},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2284","DOI":"10.1039\/D3CS00564J","article-title":"Chemical multiscale robotics for bacterial biofilm treatment","volume":"53","author":"Zhang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Chem. Soc. Rev."},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Grunwald, A. (2020). Nanotechnology-A new field of ethical inquiry?. The Ethics of Nanotechnology, Geoengineering, and Clean Energy, Routledge.","DOI":"10.4324\/9781003075028-3"},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Souto, E.B., Dias-Ferreira, J., Shegokar, R., Durazzo, A., and Santini, A. (2020). Ethical issues in research and development of nanoparticles. Drug Delivery Aspects, Elsevier.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-821222-6.00007-5"},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17151","DOI":"10.1021\/acsanm.4c02182","article-title":"Review of the applications of micro\/nanorobots in biomedicine","volume":"7","author":"Zhang","year":"2024","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Nano Mater."}],"container-title":["Molecules"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1420-3049\/31\/8\/1268\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,13]],"date-time":"2026-04-13T07:35:27Z","timestamp":1776065727000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1420-3049\/31\/8\/1268"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,12]]},"references-count":119,"journal-issue":{"issue":"8","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,4]]}},"alternative-id":["molecules31081268"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/molecules31081268","relation":{},"ISSN":["1420-3049"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1420-3049","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,12]]}}}