{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,1]],"date-time":"2026-10-01T00:50:35Z","timestamp":1790815835172,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":239,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,27]],"date-time":"2026-05-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1779840000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100015391","name":"NPOO","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["IP-UNIST-32"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["IP-UNIST-32"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100015391","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Molecules"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Cardiometabolic diseases are increasingly recognized as disorders of chronic low-grade systemic inflammation and gut barrier dysfunction that mutually reinforce one another. Each condition amplifies the other through progressive injury to the intestinal epithelium. Compromise of the mucus layer, altered tight junction dynamics, dysbiosis, and impaired epithelial restitution promote intestinal permeability and enable the translocation of lipopolysaccharide and other microbial products into the circulation, thereby inducing metabolic endotoxemia. This gut derived inflammatory signal activates Toll like receptor 4, nuclear factor kappa B, and inflammasome associated pathways, linking barrier dysfunction to insulin resistance, hepatic steatosis, adipose tissue inflammation, endothelial activation, and vascular injury. Here, we examine the gut barrier as an immunometabolic interface and synthesize current evidence connecting its disruption to endotoxin driven cardiometabolic pathology. We further evaluate selected natural bioactive compounds, including curcumin, resveratrol, quercetin, epigallocatechin gallate, berberine, anthocyanins, omega 3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, and dietary polysaccharides, as gut targeted interventions capable of reinforcing junctional integrity, restoring mucus and microbial homeostasis, lowering endotoxin burden, and attenuating inflammatory signaling. Finally, we highlight the principal translational barriers that currently limit clinical implementation, including pharmacokinetic variability, microbiota dependent biotransformation, source standardization, and the lack of robust, standardized biomarkers of barrier restoration and metabolic endotoxemia.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules31111840","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,27]],"date-time":"2026-05-27T11:03:27Z","timestamp":1779879807000},"page":"1840","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Natural Bioactive Compounds Targeting Gut Barrier Integrity and Metabolic Endotoxemia in Cardiometabolic Disease: Mechanistic Insights and Translational Perspectives"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"31","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0006-3112-0656","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Roko","family":"\u0160anti\u0107","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pathophysiology, University of Split School of Medicine, 21000 Split, Croatia"},{"name":"Laboratory for Cardiometabolic Research, University of Split School of Medicine, 21000 Split, Croatia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-9646-2161","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lovre","family":"Martinovi\u0107","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pathophysiology, University of Split School of Medicine, 21000 Split, Croatia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3452-389X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nikola","family":"Pavlovi\u0107","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pathophysiology, University of Split School of Medicine, 21000 Split, Croatia"},{"name":"Laboratory for Cardiometabolic Research, University of Split School of Medicine, 21000 Split, Croatia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2060-5130","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dinko","family":"Martinovi\u0107","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Maxillofacial Surgery, University Hospital of Split, 21000 Split, Croatia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8375-7233","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Josip","family":"Vrdoljak","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pathophysiology, University of Split School of Medicine, 21000 Split, Croatia"},{"name":"Laboratory for Cardiometabolic Research, University of Split School of Medicine, 21000 Split, Croatia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9696-3359","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marko","family":"Kumri\u0107","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pathophysiology, University of Split School of Medicine, 21000 Split, Croatia"},{"name":"Laboratory for Cardiometabolic Research, University of Split School of Medicine, 21000 Split, Croatia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5433-5063","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marino","family":"Vilovi\u0107","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pathophysiology, University of Split School of Medicine, 21000 Split, Croatia"},{"name":"Laboratory for Cardiometabolic Research, University of Split School of Medicine, 21000 Split, Croatia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1634-0635","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jo\u0161ko","family":"Bo\u017ei\u0107","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pathophysiology, University of Split School of Medicine, 21000 Split, Croatia"},{"name":"Laboratory for Cardiometabolic Research, University of Split School of Medicine, 21000 Split, Croatia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1038\/nature21363","article-title":"Inflammation, Metaflammation and Immunometabolic Disorders","volume":"542","author":"Hotamisligil","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109119","DOI":"10.1016\/j.diabres.2021.109119","article-title":"IDF Diabetes Atlas: Global, Regional and Country-Level Diabetes Prevalence Estimates for 2021 and Projections for 2045","volume":"183","author":"Sun","year":"2022","journal-title":"Diabetes Res. Clin. Pract."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100633","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajpc.2024.100633","article-title":"Global Burden of Cardiovascular Diseases Attributed to Low Physical Activity: An Analysis of 204 Countries and Territories between 1990 and 2019","volume":"17","author":"Luo","year":"2024","journal-title":"Am. J. Prev. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"851","DOI":"10.1016\/S2468-1253(22)00165-0","article-title":"The Prevalence and Incidence of NAFLD Worldwide: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"7","author":"Riazi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Lancet Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.1038\/s41577-019-0198-4","article-title":"The Intestinal Microbiota Fuelling Metabolic Inflammation","volume":"20","author":"Tilg","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1761","DOI":"10.2337\/db06-1491","article-title":"Metabolic Endotoxemia Initiates Obesity and Insulin Resistance","volume":"56","author":"Cani","year":"2007","journal-title":"Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3015","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI28898","article-title":"TLR4 Links Innate Immunity and Fatty Acid\u2013Induced Insulin Resistance","volume":"116","author":"Shi","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"801","DOI":"10.1017\/S0007114512001213","article-title":"Influence of a High-Fat Diet on Gut Microbiota, Intestinal Permeability and Metabolic Endotoxaemia","volume":"108","author":"Moreira","year":"2012","journal-title":"Br. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"626","DOI":"10.1080\/10408398.2018.1546669","article-title":"Bioactivity of Dietary Polyphenols: The Role of Metabolites","volume":"60","author":"Luca","year":"2020","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1415","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jnutbio.2013.05.001","article-title":"Benefits of Polyphenols on Gut Microbiota and Implications in Human Health","volume":"24","author":"Cardona","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Nutr. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vrdoljak, J., Kumric, M., Vilovic, M., Martinovic, D., Tomic, I.J., Krnic, M., Ticinovic Kurir, T., and Bozic, J. (2022). Effects of Olive Oil and Its Components on Intestinal Inflammation and Inflammatory Bowel Disease. Nutrients, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu14040757"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Di Tommaso, N., Gasbarrini, A., and Ponziani, F.R. (2021). Intestinal Barrier in Human Health and Disease. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph182312836"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"573","DOI":"10.1016\/S2468-1253(24)00390-X","article-title":"The Intestinal Barrier: A Pivotal Role in Health, Inflammation, and Cancer","volume":"10","author":"Neurath","year":"2025","journal-title":"Lancet Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"686","article-title":"The Intestinal Barrier Function and Its Involvement in Digestive Disease","volume":"107","author":"Vicario","year":"2015","journal-title":"Rev. Esp. Enferm. Dig."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"927","DOI":"10.1007\/s00109-017-1557-x","article-title":"Layered Defense: How Mucus and Tight Junctions Seal the Intestinal Barrier","volume":"95","author":"Capaldo","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Mol. Med."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1373208","DOI":"10.1080\/21688370.2017.1373208","article-title":"Intestinal Barrier and Gut Microbiota: Shaping Our Immune Responses throughout Life","volume":"5","author":"Takiishi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Tissue Barriers"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.33696\/immunology.6.186","article-title":"Guardians of Intestinal Homeostasis: Focus on Intestinal Epithelial Cells","volume":"6","author":"Elbrashy","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Cell. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"H1227","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpheart.00612.2020","article-title":"Intestinal Barrier Dysfunction as a Therapeutic Target for Cardiovascular Disease","volume":"319","author":"Lewis","year":"2020","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol.-Heart Circ. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Riedel, S., Pheiffer, C., Johnson, R., Louw, J., and Muller, C.J.F. (2022). Intestinal Barrier Function and Immune Homeostasis Are Missing Links in Obesity and Type 2 Diabetes Development. Front. Endocrinol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2021.833544"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"C1723","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpcell.00704.2025","article-title":"From Gut to Blood: Barrier Dysfunction as a Driver of Systemic Low-Grade Inflammation in Cardiometabolic Disease","volume":"329","author":"Jensen","year":"2025","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol.-Cell Physiol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1208468","DOI":"10.1080\/21688370.2016.1208468","article-title":"Intestinal Barrier Analysis by Assessment of Mucins, Tight Junctions, and \u03b1-Defensins in Healthy C57BL\/6J and BALB\/cJ Mice","volume":"4","author":"Volynets","year":"2016","journal-title":"Tissue Barriers"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1463","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcmgh.2021.02.007","article-title":"Regulation of Intestinal Barrier Function by Microbial Metabolites","volume":"11","author":"Ghosh","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cell. Mol. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"639","DOI":"10.1038\/nri.2016.88","article-title":"Immunological Aspects of Intestinal Mucus and Mucins","volume":"16","author":"Johansson","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"761","DOI":"10.4161\/19490976.2014.972238","article-title":"Antimicrobial Peptides and the Enteric Mucus Layer Act in Concert to Protect the Intestinal Mucosa","volume":"5","author":"Dupont","year":"2014","journal-title":"Gut Microbes"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Puljiz, Z., Kumric, M., Vrdoljak, J., Martinovic, D., Ticinovic Kurir, T., Krnic, M.O., Urlic, H., Puljiz, Z., Zucko, J., and Dumanic, P. (2023). Obesity, Gut Microbiota, and Metabolome: From Pathophysiology to Nutritional Interventions. Nutrients, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu15102236"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.1038\/s44324-025-00066-1","article-title":"Mechanisms and Implications of the Gut Microbial Modulation of Intestinal Metabolic Processes","volume":"3","author":"Jyoti","year":"2025","journal-title":"npj Metab. Health Dis."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gasaly, N., De Vos, P., and Hermoso, M.A. (2021). Impact of Bacterial Metabolites on Gut Barrier Function and Host Immunity: A Focus on Bacterial Metabolism and Its Relevance for Intestinal Inflammation. Front. Immunol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2021.658354"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"\u0160anti\u0107, R., Pavlovi\u0107, N., Kumri\u0107, M., Vilovi\u0107, M., and Bo\u017ei\u0107, J. (2025). Pathophysiological Links Between Inflammatory Bowel Disease and Cardiovascular Disease: The Role of Dysbiosis and Emerging Biomarkers. Biomedicines, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/biomedicines13081864"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Matar, A., Damianos, J.A., Jencks, K.J., and Camilleri, M. (2024). Intestinal Barrier Impairment, Preservation, and Repair: An Update. Nutrients, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu16203494"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Malesza, I.J., Malesza, M., Walkowiak, J., Mussin, N., Walkowiak, D., Aringazina, R., Bartkowiak-Wieczorek, J., and M\u0105dry, E. (2021). High-Fat, Western-Style Diet, Systemic Inflammation, and Gut Microbiota: A Narrative Review. Cells, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/cells10113164"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8905","DOI":"10.3748\/wjg.v22.i40.8905","article-title":"Effects of a High Fat Diet on Intestinal Microbiota and Gastrointestinal Diseases","volume":"22","author":"Zhang","year":"2016","journal-title":"World J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e13673","DOI":"10.1111\/obr.13673","article-title":"The Role of the Gastrointestinal Barrier in Obesity-associated Systemic Inflammation","volume":"25","author":"Acciarino","year":"2024","journal-title":"Obes. Rev."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e13309","DOI":"10.1590\/1414-431x2024e13309","article-title":"Induced Acute Hyperglycemia Modifies the Barrier Function of the Intestinal Epithelium by Tissue Inflammation and Tight Junction Disruption Resulting in Hydroelectrolytic Secretion in an Animal Model","volume":"57","author":"Siqueira","year":"2024","journal-title":"Braz. J. Med. Biol. Res."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115765","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bcp.2023.115765","article-title":"High Glucose Exposure Drives Intestinal Barrier Dysfunction by Altering Its Morphological, Structural and Functional Properties","volume":"216","author":"Dubois","year":"2023","journal-title":"Biochem. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ouyang, F., Li, B., Wang, Y., Xu, L., Li, D., Li, F., and Sun-Waterhouse, D. (2022). Attenuation of Palmitic Acid-Induced Intestinal Epithelial Barrier Dysfunction by 6-Shogaol in Caco-2 Cells: The Role of MiR-216a-5p\/TLR4\/NF-\u03baB Axis. Metabolites, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/metabo12111028"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"879","DOI":"10.1007\/s11427-022-2283-4","article-title":"High-Fat Diet Impairs Gut Barrier through Intestinal Microbiota-Derived Reactive Oxygen Species","volume":"67","author":"Zeng","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sci. China Life Sci."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"158530","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbalip.2019.158530","article-title":"Palmitic Acid Damages Gut Epithelium Integrity and Initiates Inflammatory Cytokine Production","volume":"1865","author":"Ghezzal","year":"2020","journal-title":"Biochim. Biophys. Acta-Mol. Cell Biol. Lipids"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Komic, L., Kumric, M., Komic, J., Tomicic, M., Kurir, T.T., Grahovac, M., Mornar, M., Rusic, D., Bukic, J., and Bozic, J. (2025). The Hidden Price of Plenty: Oxidative Stress and Calorie-Induced Cardiometabolic Dysfunction. Life, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/life15071022"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"\u0160uran, J., Pavlovi\u0107, N., Bo\u017ei\u0107, J., Kumri\u0107, M., Vukojevi\u0107, K., Filipovi\u0107, N., and Radi\u0107, B. (2026). IBS and SIBO: Gut Microbiota, Pathophysiology, and Non-Pharmacological Interventions. Antibiotics, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics15030251"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"275","DOI":"10.1007\/s11739-023-03374-w","article-title":"Gut Microbiota, Intestinal Permeability, and Systemic Inflammation: A Narrative Review","volume":"19","author":"Petito","year":"2024","journal-title":"Intern. Emerg. Med."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.12688\/f1000research.20510.1","article-title":"All Disease Begins in the (Leaky) Gut: Role of Zonulin-Mediated Gut Permeability in the Pathogenesis of Some Chronic Inflammatory Diseases","volume":"9","author":"Fasano","year":"2020","journal-title":"F1000Research"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Georgopoulou, G.-A., Papasotiriou, M., Bosgana, P., De Lastic, A.-L., Koufou, E.-E., Papachristou, E., Goumenos, D.S., Davlouros, P., Kourea, E., and Zolota, V. (2024). Altered Expression of Intestinal Tight Junctions in Patients with Chronic Kidney Disease: A Pathogenetic Mechanism of Intestinal Hyperpermeability. Biomedicines, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/biomedicines12020368"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105403","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2023.105403","article-title":"Mitochondria of Intestinal Epithelial Cells in Depression: Are They at a Crossroads of Gut-Brain Communication?","volume":"153","author":"Wang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"537","DOI":"10.1038\/s41575-024-00931-2","article-title":"Mitochondrial Function and Gastrointestinal Diseases","volume":"21","author":"Haque","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71456","DOI":"10.18632\/oncotarget.16886","article-title":"MUC2 Mucin Deficiency Alters Inflammatory and Metabolic Pathways in the Mouse Intestinal Mucosa","volume":"8","author":"Tadesse","year":"2017","journal-title":"Oncotarget"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21135","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-78141-4","article-title":"Mucin-2 Knockout Is a Model of Intercellular Junction Defects, Mitochondrial Damage and ATP Depletion in the Intestinal Epithelium","volume":"10","author":"Borisova","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bergstrom, K.S.B., Kissoon-Singh, V., Gibson, D.L., Ma, C., Montero, M., Sham, H.P., Ryz, N., Huang, T., Velcich, A., and Finlay, B.B. (2010). Muc2 Protects against Lethal Infectious Colitis by Disassociating Pathogenic and Commensal Bacteria from the Colonic Mucosa. PLoS Pathog., 6.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1000902"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ngo, P.A., Neurath, M.F., and L\u00f3pez-Posadas, R. (2022). Impact of Epithelial Cell Shedding on Intestinal Homeostasis. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms23084160"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"495","DOI":"10.1038\/s12276-024-01179-1","article-title":"Intestinal Stem Cells: Guardians of Homeostasis in Health and Aging amid Environmental Challenges","volume":"56","author":"Choi","year":"2024","journal-title":"Exp. Mol. Med."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2350631","DOI":"10.1002\/eji.202350631","article-title":"Epithelial-immune Cell Crosstalk for Intestinal Barrier Homeostasis","volume":"54","author":"Yao","year":"2024","journal-title":"Eur. J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yang, S., Liu, H., and Liu, Y. (2025). Advances in Intestinal Epithelium and Gut Microbiota Interaction. Front. Microbiol., 16.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2025.1499202"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"417","DOI":"10.1038\/s41575-023-00766-3","article-title":"Paracellular Permeability and Tight Junction Regulation in Gut Health and Disease","volume":"20","author":"Horowitz","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"525","DOI":"10.1152\/physrev.00019.2012","article-title":"Claudins and the Modulation of Tight Junction Permeability","volume":"93","author":"Yu","year":"2013","journal-title":"Physiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e977176","DOI":"10.4161\/21688370.2014.977176","article-title":"Claudin-2 as a Mediator of Leaky Gut Barrier during Intestinal Inflammation","volume":"3","author":"Luettig","year":"2015","journal-title":"Tissue Barriers"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"722","DOI":"10.1091\/mbc.E20-07-0464","article-title":"Occludin and Tricellulin Facilitate Formation of Anastomosing Tight-Junction Strand Network to Improve Barrier Function","volume":"32","author":"Saito","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mol. Biol. Cell"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"538","DOI":"10.1136\/gut.42.4.538","article-title":"Protein Transport and Processing by Human HT29-19A Intestinal Cells: Effect of Interferon Gamma","volume":"42","author":"Terpend","year":"1998","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"247","DOI":"10.1038\/mi.2010.5","article-title":"Multiple Facets of Intestinal Permeability and Epithelial Handling of Dietary Antigens","volume":"3","author":"Heyman","year":"2010","journal-title":"Mucosal Immunol."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1817","DOI":"10.1136\/gut.2004.041426","article-title":"Increased Epithelial Uptake of Protein Antigens in the Ileum of Crohn\u2019s Disease Mediated by Tumour Necrosis Factor \u03b1","volume":"53","author":"Streutker","year":"2004","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"425","DOI":"10.1016\/S0002-9440(10)63308-1","article-title":"Antigen Transport and Cytoskeletal Characteristics of a Distinct Enterocyte Population in Inflammatory Bowel Diseases","volume":"165","author":"Kersting","year":"2004","journal-title":"Am. J. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1007\/s003840050181","article-title":"Transepithelial Transport Processes at the Intestinal Mucosa in Inflammatory Bowel Disease","volume":"14","author":"Klotz","year":"1999","journal-title":"Int. J. Color. Dis."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"233","DOI":"10.1042\/bss0700233","article-title":"Caspase Activation","volume":"70","author":"Boatright","year":"2003","journal-title":"Biochem. Soc. Symp."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1042\/bse0380009","article-title":"Caspases and Apoptosis","volume":"38","author":"Salvesen","year":"2002","journal-title":"Essays Biochem."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Roberts, J., Suckling, C., Peedle, G., Murphy, J., Dawkins, T., and Roberts, M. (2016). An Exploratory Investigation of Endotoxin Levels in Novice Long Distance Triathletes, and the Effects of a Multi-Strain Probiotic\/Prebiotic, Antioxidant Intervention. Nutrients, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu8110733"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"392","DOI":"10.2337\/dc10-1676","article-title":"Endotoxemia Is Associated with an Increased Risk of Incident Diabetes","volume":"34","author":"Pussinen","year":"2011","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"754","DOI":"10.2741\/S405","article-title":"Causes and Consequences of Low Grade Endotoxemia and Inflammatory Diseases","volume":"5","author":"Glaros","year":"2013","journal-title":"Front. Biosci."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S213","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciu541","article-title":"Use of the Lactulose to Mannitol Ratio to Evaluate Childhood Environmental Enteric Dysfunction: A Systematic Review","volume":"59","author":"Denno","year":"2014","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1191","DOI":"10.1038\/nature07830","article-title":"The Structural Basis of Lipopolysaccharide Recognition by the TLR4\u2013MD-2 Complex","volume":"458","author":"Park","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1002\/jlb.64.1.25","article-title":"LPS-Binding Proteins and Receptors","volume":"64","author":"Fenton","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Leukoc. Biol."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"906","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2007.08.002","article-title":"Crystal Structure of the TLR4-MD-2 Complex with Bound Endotoxin Antagonist Eritoran","volume":"130","author":"Kim","year":"2007","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cyto.2008.01.006","article-title":"LPS\/TLR4 Signal Transduction Pathway","volume":"42","author":"Lu","year":"2008","journal-title":"Cytokine"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-2836(02)01404-3","article-title":"TAK1 Is Critical for I\u03baB Kinase-Mediated Activation of the NF-\u03baB Pathway","volume":"326","author":"Takaesu","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.1016\/j.smim.2006.12.004","article-title":"TLR Signaling","volume":"19","author":"Kawai","year":"2007","journal-title":"Semin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xu, Y.-R., and Lei, C.-Q. (2021). TAK1-TABs Complex: A Central Signalosome in Inflammatory Responses. Front. Immunol., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2020.608976"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"640","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1087262","article-title":"Role of Adaptor TRIF in the MyD88-Independent Toll-Like Receptor Signaling Pathway","volume":"301","author":"Yamamoto","year":"2003","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"352","DOI":"10.1038\/ni.2228","article-title":"A Role for the NLRP3 Inflammasome in Metabolic Diseases\u2014Did Warburg Miss Inflammation?","volume":"13","author":"Wen","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nat. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1038\/nm.2279","article-title":"The NLRP3 Inflammasome Instigates Obesity-Induced Inflammation and Insulin Resistance","volume":"17","author":"Vandanmagsar","year":"2011","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1353","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.1600699","article-title":"Active Caspase-1 Induces Plasma Membrane Pores That Precede Pyroptotic Lysis and Are Blocked by Lanthanides","volume":"197","author":"Russo","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.1016\/j.plipres.2005.11.002","article-title":"Ceramides in Insulin Resistance and Lipotoxicity","volume":"45","author":"Summers","year":"2006","journal-title":"Prog. Lipid Res."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1279","DOI":"10.1038\/nm.2851","article-title":"Fetuin-A Acts as an Endogenous Ligand of TLR4 to Promote Lipid-Induced Insulin Resistance","volume":"18","author":"Pal","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3878","DOI":"10.1038\/ncomms4878","article-title":"Hepatocyte Toll-like Receptor 4 Regulates Obesity-Induced Inflammation and Insulin Resistance","volume":"5","author":"Jia","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111334","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopha.2021.111334","article-title":"Link between Microbiota and Hypertension: Focus on LPS\/TLR4 Pathway in Endothelial Dysfunction and Vascular Inflammation, and Therapeutic Implication of Probiotics","volume":"137","author":"Grylls","year":"2021","journal-title":"Biomed. Pharmacother."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Grahovac, M., Kumric, M., Vilovic, M., Supe-Domic, D., Pavlovic, N., Bukic, J., Ticinovic Kurir, T., and Bozic, J. (2025). Endocannabinoid and AGE Interactions in Prediabetes: The Role of Mediterranean Diet Adherence. Nutrients, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu17152517"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"175","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI29881","article-title":"Obesity Induces a Phenotypic Switch in Adipose Tissue Macrophage Polarization","volume":"117","author":"Lumeng","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1007\/s10753-025-02369-3","article-title":"Free Fatty Acids and LPS Synergistically Promote Macrophage M1 Polarization and Insulin Resistance Via FTO-Mediated CSF1 Degradation","volume":"49","author":"Xiao","year":"2026","journal-title":"Inflammation"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"417","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmet.2006.11.008","article-title":"Fat Uses a TOLL-Road to Connect Inflammation and Diabetes","volume":"4","author":"Kim","year":"2006","journal-title":"Cell Metab."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17070","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M312021200","article-title":"Tumor Necrosis Factor \u03b1 Produces Insulin Resistance in Skeletal Muscle by Activation of Inhibitor \u03baB Kinase in a P38 MAPK-Dependent Manner","volume":"279","author":"Teruel","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e220003","DOI":"10.20900\/immunometab20220003","article-title":"On the Immunometabolic Role of NF-\u03baB in Adipocytes","volume":"4","author":"Griffin","year":"2022","journal-title":"Immunometabolism"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13330","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.275.18.13330","article-title":"Ceramide Inhibits Protein Kinase B\/Akt by Promoting Dephosphorylation of Serine 473","volume":"275","author":"Schubert","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sokolowska, E., and Blachnio-Zabielska, A. (2019). The Role of Ceramides in Insulin Resistance. Front. Endocrinol., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2019.00577"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pavlovi\u0107, N., Todorovi\u0107, P., Maglica, M., Kumri\u0107, M., and Bo\u017ei\u0107, J. (2025). Nutrient-Induced Remodeling of the Adipose-Cardiac Axis: Metabolic Flexibility, Adipokine Signaling, and Therapeutic Implications for Cardiometabolic Disease. Nutrients, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu17243945"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"183","DOI":"10.1038\/nm1166","article-title":"Local and Systemic Insulin Resistance Resulting from Hepatic Activation of IKK-\u03b2 and NF-\u03baB","volume":"11","author":"Cai","year":"2005","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"212","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhep.2009.03.008","article-title":"Kupffer Cells in Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease: The Emerging View","volume":"51","author":"Baffy","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.1007\/s13679-023-00519-y","article-title":"The Role of Tumor Necrosis Factor-Alpha in the Pathogenesis and Treatment of Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease","volume":"12","author":"Vachliotis","year":"2023","journal-title":"Curr. Obes. Rep."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1836","DOI":"10.1002\/hep.24001","article-title":"Evolution of Inflammation in Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease: The Multiple Parallel Hits Hypothesis","volume":"52","author":"Tilg","year":"2010","journal-title":"Hepatology"},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1813","DOI":"10.1080\/15548627.2017.1356550","article-title":"Lipopolysaccharide Mediates Hepatic Stellate Cell Activation by Regulating Autophagy and Retinoic Acid Signaling","volume":"13","author":"Chen","year":"2017","journal-title":"Autophagy"},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"947","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmet.2024.04.006","article-title":"Hepatic Selective Insulin Resistance at the Intersection of Insulin Signaling and Metabolic Dysfunction-Associated Steatotic Liver Disease","volume":"36","author":"Bo","year":"2024","journal-title":"Cell Metab."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1225","DOI":"10.1161\/ATVBAHA.107.160192","article-title":"Overproduction of Very Low\u2013Density Lipoproteins Is the Hallmark of the Dyslipidemia in the Metabolic Syndrome","volume":"28","author":"Adiels","year":"2008","journal-title":"Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1273","DOI":"10.1128\/IAI.69.3.1273-1279.2001","article-title":"Bacterial Lipopolysaccharide and Tumor Necrosis Factor Alpha Synergistically Increase Expression of Human Endothelial Adhesion Molecules through Activation of NF-\u03baB and P38 Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase Signaling Pathways","volume":"69","author":"Jersmann","year":"2001","journal-title":"Infect. Immun."},{"key":"ref_99","first-page":"1532832","article-title":"The Role of TLR2, TLR4, and TLR9 in the Pathogenesis of Atherosclerosis","volume":"2016","author":"Roshan","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Inflamm."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e144913","DOI":"10.1172\/jci.insight.144913","article-title":"MMP2 and TLRs Modulate Immune Responses in the Tumor Microenvironment","volume":"6","author":"McClain","year":"2021","journal-title":"JCI Insight"},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"158","DOI":"10.1161\/ATVBAHA.112.300421","article-title":"Soluble CD14: Genomewide Association Analysis and Relationship to Cardiovascular Risk and Mortality in Older Adults","volume":"33","author":"Reiner","year":"2013","journal-title":"Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacc.2007.02.070","article-title":"Association of Lipopolysaccharide-Binding Protein and Coronary Artery Disease in Men","volume":"50","author":"Lepper","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1007\/s00125-024-06306-1","article-title":"Targeting the NLRP3 Inflammasome\u2013IL-1\u03b2 Pathway in Type 2 Diabetes and Obesity","volume":"68","author":"Meier","year":"2025","journal-title":"Diabetologia"},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI88877","article-title":"Islet Inflammation in Type 2 Diabetes and Physiology","volume":"127","author":"Eguchi","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"455","DOI":"10.1038\/s41574-021-00510-4","article-title":"Therapeutic Opportunities for Pancreatic \u03b2-Cell ER Stress in Diabetes Mellitus","volume":"17","author":"Yong","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1376","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aar3318","article-title":"Hyperglycemia Drives Intestinal Barrier Dysfunction and Risk for Enteric Infection","volume":"359","author":"Thaiss","year":"2018","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"984","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2025.5956","article-title":"Diagnosis and Treatment of Type 2 Diabetes in Adults: A Review","volume":"334","author":"Kalyani","year":"2025","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"397","DOI":"10.1080\/17512433.2018.1429910","article-title":"The Pharmacological Management of Metabolic Syndrome","volume":"11","author":"Dima","year":"2018","journal-title":"Expert. Rev. Clin. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Guo, F., and Zhang, S. (2025). Chinese Medicine-Derived Natural Compounds and Intestinal Regeneration: Mechanisms and Experimental Evidence. Biomolecules, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/biom15091212"},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Facchin, S., Bertin, L., Bonazzi, E., Lorenzon, G., De Barba, C., Barberio, B., Zingone, F., Maniero, D., Scarpa, M., and Ruffolo, C. (2024). Short-Chain Fatty Acids and Human Health: From Metabolic Pathways to Current Therapeutic Implications. Life, 14.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202403.1638.v1"},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"EFSA Panel on Food Additives and Nutrient Sources added to Food (ANS), Younes, M., Aggett, P., Aguilar, F., Crebelli, R., Dusemund, B., Filipi\u010d, M., Frutos, M.J., Galtier, P., and Gott, D. (2018). Scientific Opinion on the Safety of Green Tea Catechins. EFSA J., 16, e05239.","DOI":"10.2903\/j.efsa.2018.5239"},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ekor, M. (2014). The Growing Use of Herbal Medicines: Issues Relating to Adverse Reactions and Challenges in Monitoring Safety. Front. Pharmacol., 4.","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2013.00177"},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7656919","DOI":"10.1155\/2020\/7656919","article-title":"Biochemistry, Safety, Pharmacological Activities, and Clinical Applications of Turmeric: A Mechanistic Review","volume":"2020","author":"Ahmad","year":"2020","journal-title":"Evid.-Based Complement. Altern. Med."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sohn, S.-I., Priya, A., Balasubramaniam, B., Muthuramalingam, P., Sivasankar, C., Selvaraj, A., Valliammai, A., Jothi, R., and Pandian, S. (2021). Biomedical Applications and Bioavailability of Curcumin\u2014An Updated Overview. Pharmaceutics, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics13122102"},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1425085","DOI":"10.1080\/21688370.2018.1425085","article-title":"Curcumin-Mediated Regulation of Intestinal Barrier Function: The Mechanism Underlying Its Beneficial Effects","volume":"6","author":"Ghosh","year":"2018","journal-title":"Tissue Barriers"},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"C438","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpcell.00235.2016","article-title":"Curcumin Improves Intestinal Barrier Function: Modulation of Intracellular Signaling, and Organization of Tight Junctions","volume":"312","author":"Wang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol.-Cell Physiol."},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Panaro, M.A., Corrado, A., Benameur, T., Paolo, C.F., Cici, D., and Porro, C. (2020). The Emerging Role of Curcumin in the Modulation of TLR-4 Signaling Pathway: Focus on Neuroprotective and Anti-Rheumatic Properties. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms21072299"},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11947","DOI":"10.1080\/21655979.2021.2009322","article-title":"Improvement of Intestinal Barrier Function, Gut Microbiota, and Metabolic Endotoxemia in Type 2 Diabetes Rats by Curcumin","volume":"12","author":"Huang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Bioengineered"},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"791","DOI":"10.1093\/advances\/nmz021","article-title":"A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials on the Effects of Turmeric and Curcuminoids on Blood Lipids in Adults with Metabolic Diseases","volume":"10","author":"Yuan","year":"2019","journal-title":"Adv. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Qiu, L., Gao, C., Wang, H., Ren, Y., Li, J., Li, M., Du, X., Li, W., and Zhang, J. (2023). Effects of Dietary Polyphenol Curcumin Supplementation on Metabolic, Inflammatory, and Oxidative Stress Indices in Patients with Metabolic Syndrome: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials. Front. Endocrinol., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2023.1216708"},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nurcahyanti, A.D.R., Cokro, F., Wulanjati, M.P., Mahmoud, M.F., Wink, M., and Sobeh, M. (2022). Curcuminoids for Metabolic Syndrome: Meta-Analysis Evidences Toward Personalized Prevention and Treatment Management. Front. Nutr., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnut.2022.891339"},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hewlings, S., and Kalman, D. (2017). Curcumin: A Review of Its Effects on Human Health. Foods, 6.","DOI":"10.3390\/foods6100092"},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, Y., Hong, C., Wu, Z., Li, S., Xia, Y., Liang, Y., He, X., Xiao, X., and Tang, W. (2022). Resveratrol in Intestinal Health and Disease: Focusing on Intestinal Barrier. Front. Nutr., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnut.2022.848400"},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gal, R., Deres, L., Toth, K., Halmosi, R., and Habon, T. (2021). The Effect of Resveratrol on the Cardiovascular System from Molecular Mechanisms to Clinical Results. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms221810152"},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vrdoljak, J., Kumric, M., Ticinovic Kurir, T., Males, I., Martinovic, D., Vilovic, M., and Bozic, J. (2021). Effects of Wine Components in Inflammatory Bowel Diseases. Molecules, 26.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules26195891"},{"key":"ref_126","first-page":"79","article-title":"Formation of Reactive Oxygen and Nitrogen Species in the Presence of Pinosylvin\u2014An Analogue of Resveratrol","volume":"31","author":"Jancinova","year":"2010","journal-title":"Neuroendocrinol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"748","DOI":"10.21873\/invivo.14235","article-title":"Resveratrol Supplementation and Its Potential Benefits in Obesity-Related Non-Communicable Diseases","volume":"40","author":"Shen","year":"2026","journal-title":"In Vivo"},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Prakash, V., Bose, C., Sunilkumar, D., Cherian, R.M., Thomas, S.S., and Nair, B.G. (2024). Resveratrol as a Promising Nutraceutical: Implications in Gut Microbiota Modulation, Inflammatory Disorders, and Colorectal Cancer. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 25.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms25063370"},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cai, T.-T., Ye, X.-L., Li, R.-R., Chen, H., Wang, Y.-Y., Yong, H.-J., Pan, M.-L., Lu, W., Tang, Y., and Miao, H. (2020). Resveratrol Modulates the Gut Microbiota and Inflammation to Protect Against Diabetic Nephropathy in Mice. Front. Pharmacol., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2020.01249"},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Drabi\u0144ska, N., and Jarocka-Cyrta, E. (2022). Crosstalk between Resveratrol and Gut Barrier: A Review. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms232315279"},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"828","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-025-85148-2","article-title":"Evaluation of the Protective Role of Resveratrol on LPS-Induced Septic Intestinal Barrier Function via TLR4\/MyD88\/NF-\u03baB Signaling Pathways","volume":"15","author":"Shi","year":"2025","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"965","DOI":"10.1080\/09637486.2020.1754351","article-title":"Effect of Resveratrol on Intestinal Tight Junction Proteins and the Gut Microbiome in High-Fat Diet-Fed Insulin Resistant Mice","volume":"71","author":"Chen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Food Sci. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"98","DOI":"10.5114\/amsad.2020.95884","article-title":"Usefulness of Resveratrol Supplementation in Decreasing Cardiometabolic Risk Factors Comparing Subjects with Metabolic Syndrome and Healthy Subjects with or without Obesity: Meta-Analysis Using Multinational, Randomised, Controlled Trials","volume":"5","author":"Sergi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Arch. Med. Sci. Atheroscler. Dis."},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dyck, G.J.B., Raj, P., Zieroth, S., Dyck, J.R.B., and Ezekowitz, J.A. (2019). The Effects of Resveratrol in Patients with Cardiovascular Disease and Heart Failure: A Narrative Review. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms20040904"},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dabeek, W.M., and Marra, M.V. (2019). Dietary Quercetin and Kaempferol: Bioavailability and Potential Cardiovascular-Related Bioactivity in Humans. Nutrients, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu11102288"},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mirza, M.A., Mahmood, S., Hilles, A.R., Ali, A., Khan, M.Z., Zaidi, S.A.A., Iqbal, Z., and Ge, Y. (2023). Quercetin as a Therapeutic Product: Evaluation of Its Pharmacological Action and Clinical Applications\u2014A Review. Pharmaceuticals, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/ph16111631"},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"965","DOI":"10.3945\/jn.108.100867","article-title":"Quercetin Enhances Intestinal Barrier Function through the Assembly of Zonnula Occludens-2, Occludin, and Claudin-1 and the Expression of Claudin-4 in Caco-2 Cells","volume":"139","author":"Suzuki","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5234","DOI":"10.3390\/cimb44110356","article-title":"Quercetin Alleviates Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Cell Damage and Inflammation via Regulation of the TLR4\/NF-\u03baB Pathway in Bovine Intestinal Epithelial Cells","volume":"44","author":"Gong","year":"2022","journal-title":"Curr. Issues Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8948","DOI":"10.29219\/fnr.v66.8948","article-title":"Quercetin Effectively Improves LPS-Induced Intestinal Inflammation, Pyroptosis, and Disruption of the Barrier Function through the TLR4\/NF-\u03baB\/NLRP3 Signaling Pathway in Vivo and in Vitro","volume":"66","author":"Zhang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Food Nutr. Res."},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yuan, M., Sun, T., Zhang, Y., Guo, C., Wang, F., Yao, Z., and Yu, L. (2024). Quercetin Alleviates Insulin Resistance and Repairs Intestinal Barrier in Db\/Db Mice by Modulating Gut Microbiota. Nutrients, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu16121870"},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101183","DOI":"10.1016\/j.crfs.2025.101183","article-title":"Quercetin Boosts Gut Microbiota-Driven Production of Isovanillic Acid to Alleviate Colitis via Enhancing Intestinal Barrier Function","volume":"11","author":"Lei","year":"2025","journal-title":"Curr. Res. Food Sci."},{"key":"ref_142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e002713","DOI":"10.1161\/JAHA.115.002713","article-title":"Effects of Quercetin on Blood Pressure: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials","volume":"5","author":"Serban","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Am. Heart Assoc."},{"key":"ref_143","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5080","DOI":"10.1002\/ptr.7971","article-title":"The Effects of Quercetin Supplementation on Cardiometabolic Outcomes: An Umbrella Review of Meta-analyses of Randomized Controlled Trials","volume":"37","author":"Arabi","year":"2023","journal-title":"Phytother. Res."},{"key":"ref_144","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, W., Zheng, Y., Yan, F., Dong, M., and Ren, Y. (2023). Research Progress of Quercetin in Cardiovascular Disease. Front. Cardiovasc. Med., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcvm.2023.1203713"},{"key":"ref_145","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dagher, O., Mury, P., Thorin-Trescases, N., Noly, P.E., Thorin, E., and Carrier, M. (2021). Therapeutic Potential of Quercetin to Alleviate Endothelial Dysfunction in Age-Related Cardiovascular Diseases. Front. Cardiovasc. Med., 8.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcvm.2021.658400"},{"key":"ref_146","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.2174\/0929867321666141012174553","article-title":"Vascular and Metabolic Actions of the Green Tea Polyphenol Epigallocatechin Gallate","volume":"22","author":"Keske","year":"2014","journal-title":"Curr. Med. Chem."},{"key":"ref_147","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mokra, D., Joskova, M., and Mokry, J. (2022). Therapeutic Effects of Green Tea Polyphenol (\u2212)-Epigallocatechin-3-Gallate (EGCG) in Relation to Molecular Pathways Controlling Inflammation, Oxidative Stress, and Apoptosis. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms24010340"},{"key":"ref_148","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5443","DOI":"10.3390\/nu7075230","article-title":"Epigallocatechin Gallate: A Review of Its Beneficial Properties to Prevent Metabolic Syndrome","volume":"7","author":"Legeay","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nutrients"},{"key":"ref_149","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Niu, L., Luo, Y., Xie, W., Wang, C., and Liu, Z. (2026). Dietary (\u2212)-Epigallocatechin Gallate (EGCG): State-of-the-Art Advances in Bioactivities, Bioavailability Enhancement Strategies, and Applications in Nutrition and Health. Nutrients, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu18020317"},{"key":"ref_150","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rosenthal, R., Waesch, A., Masete, K.V., Massarani, A.S., Schulzke, J.-D., and Hering, N.A. (2025). The Green Tea Component (\u2212)-Epigallocatechin-3-Gallate Protects against Cytokine-Induced Epithelial Barrier Damage in Intestinal Epithelial Cells. Front. Pharmacol., 16.","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2025.1559812"},{"key":"ref_151","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2698","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajpath.2017.08.005","article-title":"Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Increase in Intestinal Epithelial Tight Permeability Is Mediated by Toll-Like Receptor 4\/Myeloid Differentiation Primary Response 88 (MyD88) Activation of Myosin Light Chain Kinase Expression","volume":"187","author":"Nighot","year":"2017","journal-title":"Am. J. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_152","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100545","DOI":"10.1016\/j.advnut.2025.100545","article-title":"Tea Polyphenol Epigallocatechin Gallate and the Gut\u2013Health Axis: Unraveling Structural Characteristics, Metabolic Pathways, and Systemic Benefits","volume":"16","author":"Yang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Adv. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_153","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1271","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fct.2007.10.006","article-title":"Modulation of Nrf2-Mediated Antioxidant and Detoxifying Enzyme Induction by the Green Tea Polyphenol EGCG","volume":"46","author":"Na","year":"2008","journal-title":"Food Chem. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_154","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111762","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodres.2022.111762","article-title":"Green Tea Extract Alters Gut Microbiota and Their Metabolism of Adults with Metabolic Syndrome in a Host-Free Human Colonic Model","volume":"160","author":"Zhang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Food Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_155","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"94","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nutres.2024.02.001","article-title":"A Green Tea Extract Confection Decreases Circulating Endotoxin and Fasting Glucose by Improving Gut Barrier Function but without Affecting Systemic Inflammation: A Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Randomized Trial in Healthy Adults and Adults with Metabolic Syndrome","volume":"124","author":"Zeng","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nutr. Res."},{"key":"ref_156","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e21228","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2023.e21228","article-title":"Effects of Green Tea Catechin on the Blood Pressure and Lipids in Overweight and Obese Population-a Meta-Analysis","volume":"9","author":"Wang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Heliyon"},{"key":"ref_157","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e19047","DOI":"10.1097\/MD.0000000000019047","article-title":"Effect of Green Tea Supplementation on Blood Pressure: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials","volume":"99","author":"Xu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Medicine"},{"key":"ref_158","first-page":"231","article-title":"Study Progress of Berberine for Treating Cardiovascular Disease","volume":"1","author":"Xia","year":"2015","journal-title":"Chronic Dis. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_159","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mattioli, R., Francioso, A., Mosca, L., and Silva, P. (2020). Anthocyanins: A Comprehensive Review of Their Chemical Properties and Health Effects on Cardiovascular and Neurodegenerative Diseases. Molecules, 25.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules25173809"},{"key":"ref_160","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101269","DOI":"10.1016\/j.redox.2019.101269","article-title":"Anthocyanins Protect the Gastrointestinal Tract from High Fat Diet-Induced Alterations in Redox Signaling, Barrier Integrity and Dysbiosis","volume":"26","author":"Cremonini","year":"2019","journal-title":"Redox Biol."},{"key":"ref_161","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Verediano, T.A., Stampini Duarte Martino, H., Dias Paes, M.C., and Tako, E. (2021). Effects of Anthocyanin on Intestinal Health: A Systematic Review. Nutrients, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu13041331"},{"key":"ref_162","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ma, Z., Du, B., Li, J., Yang, Y., and Zhu, F. (2021). An Insight into Anti-Inflammatory Activities and Inflammation Related Diseases of Anthocyanins: A Review of Both In Vivo and In Vitro Investigations. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms222011076"},{"key":"ref_163","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Salehi, B., Sharifi-Rad, J., Cappellini, F., Reiner, \u017d., Zorzan, D., Imran, M., Sener, B., Kilic, M., El-Shazly, M., and Fahmy, N.M. (2020). The Therapeutic Potential of Anthocyanins: Current Approaches Based on Their Molecular Mechanism of Action. Front. Pharmacol., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2020.01300"},{"key":"ref_164","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"G589","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpgi.00245.2020","article-title":"Effects of Dietary Components on Intestinal Permeability in Health and Disease","volume":"319","author":"Khoshbin","year":"2020","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol.-Gastrointest. Liver Physiol."},{"key":"ref_165","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2000745","DOI":"10.1002\/mnfr.202000745","article-title":"Lycium ruthenicum Anthocyanins Attenuate High-Fat Diet-Induced Colonic Barrier Dysfunction and Inflammation in Mice by Modulating the Gut Microbiota","volume":"65","author":"Tian","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mol. Nutr. Food Res."},{"key":"ref_166","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ruy, C.C., Santos, T.W.D., Pereira, Q.C., and Ribeiro, M.L. (2025). Anthocyanins Modulation of Gut Microbiota to Reverse Obesity-Driven Inflammation and Insulin Resistance. Nutrients, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu17233727"},{"key":"ref_167","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"684","DOI":"10.3945\/an.116.014852","article-title":"Effects of Anthocyanins on Cardiometabolic Health: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials","volume":"8","author":"Yang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Adv. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_168","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pan, J., Liang, J., Xue, Z., Meng, X., and Jia, L. (2025). Effect of Dietary Anthocyanins on the Risk Factors Related to Metabolic Syndrome: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. PLoS ONE, 20.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0315504"},{"key":"ref_169","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xu, L., Tian, Z., Chen, H., Zhao, Y., and Yang, Y. (2021). Anthocyanins, Anthocyanin-Rich Berries, and Cardiovascular Risks: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of 44 Randomized Controlled Trials and 15 Prospective Cohort Studies. Front. Nutr., 8.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnut.2021.747884"},{"key":"ref_170","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26595","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-024-76805-z","article-title":"Association of Dietary Anthocyanidins Intake with All-Cause Mortality and Cardiovascular Diseases Mortality in USA Adults: A Prospective Cohort Study","volume":"14","author":"Yan","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_171","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Eker, M.E., Aaby, K., Budic-Leto, I., Rimac Brn\u010di\u0107, S., El, S.N., Karakaya, S., Simsek, S., Manach, C., Wiczkowski, W., and De Pascual-Teresa, S. (2019). A Review of Factors Affecting Anthocyanin Bioavailability: Possible Implications for the Inter-Individual Variability. Foods, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/foods9010002"},{"key":"ref_172","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"982","DOI":"10.1080\/10408398.2018.1533517","article-title":"Metabolism of Anthocyanins and Consequent Effects on the Gut Microbiota","volume":"59","author":"Tian","year":"2019","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_173","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dehau, T., Cherlet, M., Croubels, S., Van De Vliet, M., Goossens, E., and Van Immerseel, F. (2023). Berberine-Microbiota Interplay: Orchestrating Gut Health through Modulation of the Gut Microbiota and Metabolic Transformation into Bioactive Metabolites. Front. Pharmacol., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2023.1281090"},{"key":"ref_174","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gong, J., Hu, M., Huang, Z., Fang, K., Wang, D., Chen, Q., Li, J., Yang, D., Zou, X., and Xu, L. (2017). Berberine Attenuates Intestinal Mucosal Barrier Dysfunction in Type 2 Diabetic Rats. Front. Pharmacol., 8.","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2017.00042"},{"key":"ref_175","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1602","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jir147","article-title":"Berberine Ameliorates Intestinal Epithelial Tight-Junction Damage and Down-Regulates Myosin Light Chain Kinase Pathways in a Mouse Model of Endotoxinemia","volume":"203","author":"Gu","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_176","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2365","DOI":"10.1080\/15384101.2022.2100682","article-title":"Protective Effect of Berberine against LPS-Induced Injury in the Intestine: A Review","volume":"21","author":"Izadparast","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cell Cycle"},{"key":"ref_177","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, Y., Zhu, X., Yu, X., Nov\u00e1k, P., Gui, Q., and Yin, K. (2023). Enhancing Intestinal Barrier Efficiency: A Novel Metabolic Diseases Therapy. Front. Nutr., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnut.2023.1120168"},{"key":"ref_178","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Duda-Madej, A., Viscardi, S., \u0141abaz, J.P., Topola, E., Szewczyk, W., and Gagat, P. (2025). Berberine in Bowel Health: Anti-Inflammatory and Gut Microbiota Modulatory Effects. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 26.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms262412021"},{"key":"ref_179","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E148","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpendo.00211.2007","article-title":"Berberine Improves Glucose Metabolism through Induction of Glycolysis","volume":"294","author":"Yin","year":"2008","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol.-Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_180","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ren, G., Ding, Y.-W., Wang, L.-L., and Jiang, J.-D. (2023). Berberine Stimulates Lysosomal AMPK Independent of PEN2 and Maintains Cellular AMPK Activity through Inhibiting the Dephosphorylation Regulator UHRF1. Front. Pharmacol., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2023.1148611"},{"key":"ref_181","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, Q., Zhang, M., Liang, B., Shirwany, N., Zhu, Y., and Zou, M.-H. (2011). Activation of AMP-Activated Protein Kinase Is Required for Berberine-Induced Reduction of Atherosclerosis in Mice: The Role of Uncoupling Protein 2. PLoS ONE, 6.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0025436"},{"key":"ref_182","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2765","DOI":"10.3892\/mmr.2017.6321","article-title":"Berberine Protects against Diet-Induced Obesity through Regulating Metabolic Endotoxemia and Gut Hormone Levels","volume":"15","author":"Xu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Mol. Med. Rep."},{"key":"ref_183","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"712","DOI":"10.1016\/j.metabol.2008.01.013","article-title":"Efficacy of Berberine in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus","volume":"57","author":"Yin","year":"2008","journal-title":"Metabolism"},{"key":"ref_184","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5015","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-020-18414-8","article-title":"Gut Microbiome-Related Effects of Berberine and Probiotics on Type 2 Diabetes (the PREMOTE Study)","volume":"11","author":"Zhang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_185","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, D., Zhao, H., Zhang, Y., Hu, J., and Xu, H. (2025). Efficacy and Safety of Berberine on the Components of Metabolic Syndrome: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Placebo-Controlled Trials. Front. Pharmacol., 16.","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2025.1572197"},{"key":"ref_186","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2074610","DOI":"10.1155\/2021\/2074610","article-title":"The Effect of Berberine on Metabolic Profiles in Type 2 Diabetic Patients: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials","volume":"2021","author":"Guo","year":"2021","journal-title":"Oxidative Med. Cell. Longev."},{"key":"ref_187","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, H., Zhang, H., Gao, Z., Zhang, Q., and Gu, C. (2022). The Mechanism of Berberine Alleviating Metabolic Disorder Based on Gut Microbiome. Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2022.854885"},{"key":"ref_188","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cholewski, M., Tomczykowa, M., and Tomczyk, M. (2018). A Comprehensive Review of Chemistry, Sources and Bioavailability of Omega-3 Fatty Acids. Nutrients, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu10111662"},{"key":"ref_189","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Saini, R.K., Prasad, P., Sreedhar, R.V., Akhilender Naidu, K., Shang, X., and Keum, Y.-S. (2021). Omega\u22123 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids (PUFAs): Emerging Plant and Microbial Sources, Oxidative Stability, Bioavailability, and Health Benefits\u2014A Review. Antioxidants, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/antiox10101627"},{"key":"ref_190","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Makay, K., Griehl, C., Schilling, S., and Grewe, C. (2025). Omega-3 Source Matters: Comparative Lipid Signatures and Quantitative Distribution of EPA\/DHA Across Marine Resources. Mar. Drugs, 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/md24010004"},{"key":"ref_191","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2779","DOI":"10.1007\/s00394-023-03172-2","article-title":"Omega-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids Improve Intestinal Barrier Integrity\u2014Albeit to a Lesser Degree than Short-Chain Fatty Acids: An Exploratory Analysis of the Randomized Controlled LIBRE Trial","volume":"62","author":"Seethaler","year":"2023","journal-title":"Eur. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_192","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zinkow, A., Grodzicki, W., Czerwi\u0144ska, M., and Dziendzikowska, K. (2024). Molecular Mechanisms Linking Omega-3 Fatty Acids and the Gut\u2013Brain Axis. Molecules, 30.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules30010071"},{"key":"ref_193","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zou, B., Zhao, D., Zhou, S., Kang, J.X., and Wang, B. (2025). Insight into the Effects of Omega-3 Fatty Acids on Gut Microbiota: Impact of a Balanced Tissue Omega-6\/Omega-3 Ratio. Front. Nutr., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnut.2025.1575323"},{"key":"ref_194","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"645","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2125.2012.04374.x","article-title":"Omega-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids and Inflammatory Processes: Nutrition or Pharmacology?","volume":"75","author":"Calder","year":"2013","journal-title":"Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_195","first-page":"e68002","article-title":"Effectiveness of Omega-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids in Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"16","author":"Aziz","year":"2024","journal-title":"Cureus"},{"key":"ref_196","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"601","DOI":"10.1002\/mnfr.201300368","article-title":"Omega-3 PUFA Supplementation and the Response to Evoked Endotoxemia in Healthy Volunteers","volume":"58","author":"Ferguson","year":"2014","journal-title":"Mol. Nutr. Food Res."},{"key":"ref_197","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1812792","article-title":"Cardiovascular Risk Reduction with Icosapent Ethyl for Hypertriglyceridemia","volume":"380","author":"Bhatt","year":"2019","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_198","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100997","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eclinm.2021.100997","article-title":"Effect of Omega-3 Fatty Acids on Cardiovascular Outcomes: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"38","author":"Khan","year":"2021","journal-title":"eClinicalMedicine"},{"key":"ref_199","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.1038\/s41569-022-00737-2","article-title":"Gut-Derived Low-Grade Endotoxaemia, Atherothrombosis and Cardiovascular Disease","volume":"20","author":"Violi","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_200","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mohammad, S., and Thiemermann, C. (2021). Role of Metabolic Endotoxemia in Systemic Inflammation and Potential Interventions. Front. Immunol., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2020.594150"},{"key":"ref_201","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1981","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCULATIONAHA.121.055654","article-title":"Effect of Long-Term Marine \u0277-3 Fatty Acids Supplementation on the Risk of Atrial Fibrillation in Randomized Controlled Trials of Cardiovascular Outcomes: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"144","author":"Gencer","year":"2021","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_202","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116","DOI":"10.1007\/s11883-025-01363-2","article-title":"N-3 Fatty Acids (EPA and DHA) and Cardiovascular Health\u2014Updated Review of Mechanisms and Clinical Outcomes","volume":"27","author":"Djuricic","year":"2025","journal-title":"Curr. Atheroscler. Rep."},{"key":"ref_203","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1021\/acsomega.4c01843","article-title":"Deciphering Pectin: A Comprehensive Overview of Its Origins, Processing, and Promising Utility","volume":"10","author":"Dang","year":"2025","journal-title":"ACS Omega"},{"key":"ref_204","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chandel, V., Biswas, D., Roy, S., Vaidya, D., Verma, A., and Gupta, A. (2022). Current Advancements in Pectin: Extraction, Properties and Multifunctional Applications. Foods, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/foods11172683"},{"key":"ref_205","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"243","DOI":"10.1007\/s11130-023-01066-6","article-title":"Extraction, Physicochemical Properties, Functional Activities and Applications of Inulin Polysaccharide: A Review","volume":"78","author":"Du","year":"2023","journal-title":"Plant Foods Hum. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_206","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Du, B., Meenu, M., Liu, H., and Xu, B. (2019). A Concise Review on the Molecular Structure and Function Relationship of \u03b2-Glucan. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms20164032"},{"key":"ref_207","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hughes, J., and Grafenauer, S. (2021). Oat and Barley in the Food Supply and Use of Beta Glucan Health Claims. Nutrients, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu13082556"},{"key":"ref_208","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Usov, A.I., Bilan, M.I., Ustyuzhanina, N.E., and Nifantiev, N.E. (2022). Fucoidans of Brown Algae: Comparison of Sulfated Polysaccharides from Fucus Vesiculosus and Ascophyllum Nodosum. Mar. Drugs, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/md20100638"},{"key":"ref_209","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yang, Y., Liang, M., Ouyang, D., Tong, H., Wu, M., and Su, L. (2022). Research Progress on the Protective Effect of Brown Algae-Derived Polysaccharides on Metabolic Diseases and Intestinal Barrier Injury. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms231810784"},{"key":"ref_210","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1007\/s11882-021-01020-z","article-title":"The Dietary Fiber Pectin: Health Benefits and Potential for the Treatment of Allergies by Modulation of Gut Microbiota","volume":"21","author":"Steigerwald","year":"2021","journal-title":"Curr. Allergy Asthma Rep."},{"key":"ref_211","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Marcobal, A.M., McConnell, B.R., Drexler, R.A., Ng, K.M., Maldonado-Gomez, M.X., Conner, A.M.S., Vierra, C.G., Krishnakumar, N., Gerber, H.M., and Garcia, J.K.A. (2024). Highly Soluble \u03b2-Glucan Fiber Modulates Mechanisms of Blood Glucose Regulation and Intestinal Permeability. Nutrients, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu16142240"},{"key":"ref_212","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dang, G., Wang, W., Zhong, R., Wu, W., Chen, L., and Zhang, H. (2022). Pectin Supplement Alleviates Gut Injury Potentially through Improving Gut Microbiota Community in Piglets. Front. Microbiol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2022.1069694"},{"key":"ref_213","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e70046","DOI":"10.1002\/fsn3.70046","article-title":"Inulin Protects Caco-2 Cells Against Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Epithelial Barrier Dysfunction","volume":"13","author":"Skinner","year":"2025","journal-title":"Food Sci. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_214","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, J., Liu, F., Luo, Y., Wijeyesekera, A., Wang, S., Chen, X., Lv, Y., Jin, J., Sheng, H., and Wang, G. (2025). Differential Effects of Inulin and Fructooligosaccharides on Gut Microbiota Composition and Glycemic Metabolism in Overweight\/Obese and Healthy Individuals: A Randomized, Double-Blind Clinical Trial. BMC Med., 23.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12916-025-04189-6"},{"key":"ref_215","first-page":"1799","article-title":"\u03b2-Glucans and Cholesterol (Review)","volume":"41","author":"Sima","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Mol. Med."},{"key":"ref_216","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141129","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijbiomac.2025.141129","article-title":"Oat \u03b2-Glucan Enhances Gut Barrier Function and Maintains Intestinal Homeostasis in Naturally Aging Mice","volume":"305","author":"Huang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol. Macromol."},{"key":"ref_217","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8692","DOI":"10.1002\/fsn3.4455","article-title":"Alginate\u2019s Ability to Prevent Metabolic Illnesses, the Degradation of the Gut\u2019s Protective Layer, and Alginate-based Encapsulation Methods","volume":"12","author":"Ahmad","year":"2024","journal-title":"Food Sci. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_218","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jiang, T., Gao, X., Wu, C., Tian, F., Lei, Q., Bi, J., Xie, B., Wang, H., Chen, S., and Wang, X. (2016). Apple-Derived Pectin Modulates Gut Microbiota, Improves Gut Barrier Function, and Attenuates Metabolic Endotoxemia in Rats with Diet-Induced Obesity. Nutrients, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu8030126"},{"key":"ref_219","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100987","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhepr.2023.100987","article-title":"Microbiota Modulation by Dietary Oat Beta-Glucan Prevents Steatotic Liver Disease Progression","volume":"6","author":"Jaeger","year":"2024","journal-title":"JHEP Rep."},{"key":"ref_220","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Guzowska, M., Dziendzikowska, K., Kopiasz, \u0141., Gajewska, M., Wilczak, J., Harasym, J., Czerwi\u0144ska, M., and Gromadzka-Ostrowska, J. (2024). Oat Beta-Glucans Modulate the Gut Microbiome, Barrier Function, and Immune Responses in an In Vivo Model of Early-Stage Colorectal Cancer. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 25.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms252413586"},{"key":"ref_221","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.3109\/09637486.2013.836738","article-title":"Inulin Controls Inflammation and Metabolic Endotoxemia in Women with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: A Randomized-Controlled Clinical Trial","volume":"65","author":"Dehghan","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Food Sci. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_222","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bischoff, S.C., Barbara, G., Buurman, W., Ockhuizen, T., Schulzke, J.-D., Serino, M., Tilg, H., Watson, A., and Wells, J.M. (2014). Intestinal Permeability\u2014A New Target for Disease Prevention and Therapy. BMC Gastroenterol., 14.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12876-014-0189-7"},{"key":"ref_223","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"989","DOI":"10.1042\/BST0390989","article-title":"Old and New Findings on Lipopolysaccharide-Binding Protein: A Soluble Pattern-Recognition Molecule","volume":"39","author":"Schumann","year":"2011","journal-title":"Biochem. Soc. Trans."},{"key":"ref_224","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1363","DOI":"10.1194\/jlr.D059725","article-title":"Quantitative Lipopolysaccharide Analysis Using HPLC\/MS\/MS and Its Combination with the Limulus Amebocyte Lysate Assay","volume":"56","author":"Gautier","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Lipid Res."},{"key":"ref_225","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ajamian, M., Steer, D., Rosella, G., and Gibson, P.R. (2019). Serum Zonulin as a Marker of Intestinal Mucosal Barrier Function: May Not Be What It Seems. PLoS ONE, 14.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0210728"},{"key":"ref_226","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Scheffler, L., Crane, A., Heyne, H., T\u00f6njes, A., Schleinitz, D., Ihling, C.H., Stumvoll, M., Freire, R., Fiorentino, M., and Fasano, A. (2018). Widely Used Commercial ELISA Does Not Detect Precursor of Haptoglobin2, but Recognizes Properdin as a Potential Second Member of the Zonulin Family. Front. Endocrinol., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2018.00022"},{"key":"ref_227","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1516","DOI":"10.1136\/gutjnl-2019-318427","article-title":"Leaky Gut: Mechanisms, Measurement and Clinical Implications in Humans","volume":"68","author":"Camilleri","year":"2019","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"ref_228","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, F., Han, Y., Wu, X., Cao, X., Gao, Z., Sun, Y., Wang, M., and Xiao, H. (2022). Gut Microbiota-Derived Resveratrol Metabolites, Dihydroresveratrol and Lunularin, Significantly Contribute to the Biological Activities of Resveratrol. Front. Nutr., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnut.2022.912591"},{"key":"ref_229","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12155","DOI":"10.1038\/srep12155","article-title":"Transforming Berberine into Its Intestine-Absorbable Form by the Gut Microbiota","volume":"5","author":"Feng","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_230","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100070","DOI":"10.1016\/j.talo.2021.100070","article-title":"Quality Control of Herbal Drugs and Preparations: The Methods of Analysis, Their Relevance and Applications","volume":"4","author":"Muyumba","year":"2021","journal-title":"Talanta Open"},{"key":"ref_231","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hermed.2015.04.002","article-title":"Phytochemical Variation: How to Resolve the Quality Controversies of Herbal Medicinal Products?","volume":"5","author":"Dhami","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Herb. Med."},{"key":"ref_232","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Musa, M.A., Kabir, M., Hossain, M.I., Ahmed, E., Siddique, A., Rashid, H., Mahfuz, M., Mondal, D., Ahmed, T., and Petri, W.A. (2019). Measurement of Intestinal Permeability Using Lactulose and Mannitol with Conventional Five Hours and Shortened Two Hours Urine Collection by Two Different Methods: HPAE-PAD and LC-MSMS. PLoS ONE, 14.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0220397"},{"key":"ref_233","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"230","DOI":"10.5114\/ait.2019.86049","article-title":"Citrulline and Intestinal Fatty Acid-Binding Protein as Biomarkers for Gastrointestinal Dysfunction in the Critically Ill","volume":"51","author":"Blaser","year":"2019","journal-title":"Anaesthesiol. Intensive Ther."},{"key":"ref_234","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2569739","DOI":"10.1080\/19490976.2025.2569739","article-title":"G Ut Microbiome Metagenomics in Clinical Practice: Bridging the Gap between Research and Precision Medicine","volume":"17","author":"Tegegne","year":"2025","journal-title":"Gut Microbes"},{"key":"ref_235","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1368","DOI":"10.1093\/annonc\/mdx108","article-title":"Baseline Gut Microbiota Predicts Clinical Response and Colitis in Metastatic Melanoma Patients Treated with Ipilimumab","volume":"28","author":"Chaput","year":"2017","journal-title":"Ann. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_236","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, L., Wu, X., Yang, R., Chen, F., Liao, Y., Zhu, Z., Wu, Z., Sun, X., and Wang, L. (2021). Effects of Berberine on the Gastrointestinal Microbiota. Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2020.588517"},{"key":"ref_237","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, M., Ding, L., Cao, L., Zhang, Z., Li, X., Li, Z., Xia, Q., Yin, K., Song, S., and Wang, Z. (2025). Natural Products Targeting AMPK Signaling Pathway Therapy, Diabetes Mellitus and Its Complications. Front. Pharmacol., 16.","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2025.1534634"},{"key":"ref_238","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhao, Y., Wu, J., Liu, X., Chen, X., and Wang, J. (2025). Decoding Nature: Multi-Target Anti-Inflammatory Mechanisms of Natural Products in the TLR4\/NF-\u03baB Pathway. Front. Pharmacol., 15.","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2024.1467193"},{"key":"ref_239","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cels.2020.02.008","article-title":"Gut-Liver Physiomimetics Reveal Paradoxical Modulation of IBD-Related Inflammation by Short-Chain Fatty Acids","volume":"10","author":"Trapecar","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell Syst."}],"container-title":["Molecules"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1420-3049\/31\/11\/1840\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,27]],"date-time":"2026-05-27T11:04:44Z","timestamp":1779879884000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1420-3049\/31\/11\/1840"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,27]]},"references-count":239,"journal-issue":{"issue":"11","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6]]}},"alternative-id":["molecules31111840"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/molecules31111840","relation":{},"ISSN":["1420-3049"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1420-3049","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,27]]}}}