{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,22]],"date-time":"2026-09-22T04:33:45Z","timestamp":1790051625604,"version":"4.0.1"},"reference-count":38,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"13","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,23]],"date-time":"2026-06-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1782172800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Molecules"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This study investigated an efficient approach for extracting saponins from Panax japonicus using deep eutectic solvents (DES) coupled with ultrasound-assisted (UA) extraction, and compared its performance with the methanol extraction method. Twenty-six DES were screened, and choline chloride\u2013urea was selected as the optimal solvent. The total extraction yield was evaluated based on the sum of the yields of chikusetsusaponin IVa (CS-IVa) and ginsenoside Ro (G-Ro). The extraction process was optimized using single-factor experiments combined with an orthogonal array design. Molecular dynamics (MD) simulation was applied to reveal the extraction mechanism at the molecular level. The results showed that the optimal conditions were as follows: a choline chloride-to-urea molar ratio of 1:3, a solid-to-liquid ratio of 1:50, a water content of 60%, an ultrasonic temperature of 40 \u00b0C, and an ultrasonic time of 60 min. Under these conditions, the total extraction yield of Panax japonicus saponins reached 7.4%, which was 13% higher than that obtained with the pharmacopeia methanol extraction method. MD simulation demonstrated that DES weakens intermolecular interactions among saponins through hydrogen bonds and van der Waals forces, promoting the dispersion of saponin aggregates and enabling efficient dissolution. Compared with CS-IVa, G-Ro displayed a more pronounced solvation effect, which was likely attributed to the difference in the number of polar sites in their molecular structures. The UA-DES extraction method established herein is green and efficient. It provides a practical reference for the industrial extraction of Panax japonicus saponins and a theoretical foundation for mechanistic studies on natural product extraction using DES.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules31132200","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,23]],"date-time":"2026-06-23T08:19:52Z","timestamp":1782202792000},"page":"2200","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Optimization of Ultrasound-Assisted Deep Eutectic Solvent Extraction and Mechanism Evaluation of Saponins from Panax japonicus"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"31","author":[{"given":"Jing","family":"Wang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Chinese Medicinal Resources & New Product Development, School of Pharmacy, Sichuan Industrial Institute of Antibiotics, Chengdu University, Chengdu 610106, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zhengwen","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Chinese Medicinal Resources & New Product Development, School of Pharmacy, Sichuan Industrial Institute of Antibiotics, Chengdu University, Chengdu 610106, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xia","family":"Zeng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Chinese Medicinal Resources & New Product Development, School of Pharmacy, Sichuan Industrial Institute of Antibiotics, Chengdu University, Chengdu 610106, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Miao","family":"Zheng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Chinese Medicinal Resources & New Product Development, School of Pharmacy, Sichuan Industrial Institute of Antibiotics, Chengdu University, Chengdu 610106, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Minqian","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Chinese Medicinal Resources & New Product Development, School of Pharmacy, Sichuan Industrial Institute of Antibiotics, Chengdu University, Chengdu 610106, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Qianlong","family":"Duan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Chinese Medicinal Resources & New Product Development, School of Pharmacy, Sichuan Industrial Institute of Antibiotics, Chengdu University, Chengdu 610106, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yong","family":"Jiang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Chinese Medicinal Resources & New Product Development, School of Pharmacy, Sichuan Industrial Institute of Antibiotics, Chengdu University, Chengdu 610106, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jia","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Chinese Medicinal Resources & New Product Development, School of Pharmacy, Sichuan Industrial Institute of Antibiotics, Chengdu University, Chengdu 610106, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0004-5403-0202","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zhengyou","family":"He","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Chinese Medicinal Resources & New Product Development, School of Pharmacy, Sichuan Industrial Institute of Antibiotics, Chengdu University, Chengdu 610106, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Commission, N.P. 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