{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,25]],"date-time":"2026-08-25T19:30:12Z","timestamp":1787686212974,"version":"build-2784847793"},"reference-count":72,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"15","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,23]],"date-time":"2026-07-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1784764800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Molecules"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Geochemical and isotopic analysis of bitumen-lined transport container vessels, so called \u2018torpedo jars\u2019, from the Sasanian to Early Islamic period fort of Fulayj in Oman confirms the presence of two distinct compositional categories that can be matched to contemporary sources in different areas of southwest Iran. It appears that the bitumen used to line jars was extracted from different geographic areas, hinting at the existence of multiple production locations for this vessel class. In terms of the function of the jars, organic residue analysis provides a positive identification of biomarkers associated with the storage and transportation of red wine. These results provide the first published confirmation of the long-suspected association between torpedo jars and wine transportation from the core urbanised zone of the Sasanian and Early Islamic imperial heartlands towards the Persian Gulf and Indian Ocean maritime sphere. The results have added significance as the samples are derived from relatively accurately dated archaeological contexts spanning the period before and after the Islamic conquest.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules31152571","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,23]],"date-time":"2026-07-23T15:05:42Z","timestamp":1784819142000},"page":"2571","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Origin and Function of Bitumen-Coated Torpedo Jars from the Sasanian to Early Islamic Period Fort of Fulayj in Oman"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"31","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9406-3875","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jacques","family":"Connan","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Chemistry, Universit\u00e9 de Strasbourg, 23 rue Antoine de Saint-Exup\u00e9ry, 64000 Pau, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3806-4320","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Seth","family":"Priestman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for the Study of Ancient Cultures, University of Chicago, 1155 E 58th St., Chicago, IL 60637, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Michael H.","family":"Engel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Geosciences, The University of Oklahoma, 100 Esat Boyd Street, Norman, OK 73019, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8228-9140","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alex","family":"Zumberge","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"GeoMark Research Inc., 9748 Whithorn Drive, Houston, TX 77095, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4087-3431","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gazmend","family":"Elezi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pasarow Mass Spectrometry Laboratory, University of California Los Angeles, 760 Westwood Plaza, Los Angeles, CA 90024, USA"},{"name":"Cotsen Institute of Archaeology, University of California Los Angeles, 308 Charles E Young Drive North, Los Angeles, CA 90024, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nasser S.","family":"Al-Jahwari","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Archaeology, Sultan Qaboos University, Al Seeb Al Khoudh, Muscat OM 123, Oman"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"724","DOI":"10.15184\/aqy.2018.64","article-title":"Fulayj: A Late Sasanian Fort on the Arabian Coast","volume":"92","author":"Kennet","year":"2018","journal-title":"Antiquity"},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"291","article-title":"Fulayj: A Sasanian to Early Islamic Fort in the Sohar Hinterland","volume":"52","author":"Priestman","year":"2023","journal-title":"Proc. Semin. Arab. Stud."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jas.2020.105111","article-title":"Geochemical analysis of bitumen from West Asian torpedo jars from the c. 8th century Phanom-Surin shipwreck in Thailand","volume":"117","author":"Connan","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Archaeol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_4","first-page":"646","article-title":"Various ceramics","volume":"Volume 294","author":"Ward","year":"2004","journal-title":"The Belitung Wreck: Sunken Treasures from Tang China"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"972","DOI":"10.1017\/S0003598X00096058","article-title":"Rome and Mesopotamia\u2014Importers into India in the first millennium AD","volume":"81","author":"Tomber","year":"2007","journal-title":"Antiquity"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"409","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1475-4754.2007.00347.x","article-title":"From Susa to Anuradhapura: Reconstructing aspects of trade and exchange in bitumen-coated ceramic vessels between Iran and Sri Lanka in the Third to the Ninth centuries AD","volume":"50","author":"Stern","year":"2008","journal-title":"Archaeometry"},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"6","article-title":"Report on Torpedo jars from the Williamson Collection","volume":"38","author":"Tomber","year":"2010","journal-title":"Br. Inst. Persian Stud. Newsl."},{"key":"ref_8","first-page":"11","article-title":"Investigating Torpedo jars\u2014Their composition and source","volume":"15","author":"Tomber","year":"2010","journal-title":"Old Potter\u2019s Alm."},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"162","article-title":"Torpedo jars from Sir Bani Yas, Abu Dhabi, Tribulus","volume":"19","author":"Carter","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Emir. Nat. Hist. Group"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Krist, G., and Zhang, L. (2018). Ancient torpedo jars of Iran (Persian Gulf). Archaeology and Conservation Along the Silk Road, B\u00f6hlau Verlag. Conference 2016 postprints.","DOI":"10.7767\/9783205200468"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"76","DOI":"10.1186\/s40494-020-00425-9","article-title":"Indian Ocean trade connections: Characterization and commercial routes of torpedo jars","volume":"8","author":"Lischi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Herit. Sci."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Connan, J., Engel, M.H., Jackson, R., Priestman, S., Vosmer, T., and Zumberge, A. (2021). Geochemical Analysis of Two Samples of Bitumen from Jars Discovered on Muhut and Masirah Islands (Oman). Separations, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/separations8100182"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1111\/aae.12186","article-title":"From \u2018ovoid jars\u2019 to \u2018torpedo jars\u2019: Investigations into bitumen-lined transport containers in the Gulf and the Indian Ocean in antiquity (second century BCE\u2013third century CE)","volume":"32","author":"Durand","year":"2021","journal-title":"Arab. Archaeol. Epigr."},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"307","article-title":"The last gate to the East: The Roman army outpost at Bi\u011f\u0101n on the Euphrates revisited","volume":"30","author":"Oleksiak","year":"2021","journal-title":"Pol. Archaeol. Mediterr."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"240","DOI":"10.1080\/05786967.2020.1792797","article-title":"Early Islamic Torpedo Jars from Siraf: Scientific Analyses of the Clay Fabric and Source of Indian Ocean Transport Containers","volume":"60","author":"Tomber","year":"2022","journal-title":"Iran"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"162","DOI":"10.1186\/s40494-022-00801-7","article-title":"The organic residues of lining in transport vessels for the Red Sea coast of Eritrea: A further element to understand past commercial relations","volume":"10","author":"Zerai","year":"2022","journal-title":"Herit. Sci."},{"key":"ref_17","first-page":"269","article-title":"Torpedo Jars of Iran: Context of Archaeological Discovery and Origin of the Bitumen coating","volume":"16","author":"Connan","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Archaeol. Stud."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Connan, J., Bonn\u00e9ric, J., Perrogon, R., Engel, M.H., Gley, R., Zumberge, A., and Schaeffer, P. (2025). Geochemical Study of Bitumen Residues on Potsherds from the al-Qusur Monastery (7th\u20139th c. CE): Composition and Origin. Molecules, 30.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202501.1103.v1"},{"key":"ref_19","first-page":"263","article-title":"Archaeological research at Suh\u0101r 1980\u20131986","volume":"13","author":"Kervran","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Oman Stud."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Roban, C., and Schiettecatte, J. (2009). La transition vers la p\u00e9riode sassanide dans la p\u00e9ninsule d\u2019Oman: Chronologie et modes de peuplement. L\u2019Arabie \u00e0 la Veille de l\u2019Islam; Orient et M\u00e9diterran\u00e9e 3, Editions de Boccard."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"86","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-0471.2007.00274.x","article-title":"The decline of Eastern Arabia in the Sasanian period","volume":"18","author":"Kennet","year":"2007","journal-title":"Arab. Archaeol. Epigr."},{"key":"ref_22","first-page":"16","article-title":"Sohar Project: The archaeology of an Indian Ocean port in Arabia","volume":"32","author":"Priestman","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. Assoc. Study Arab. Bull."},{"key":"ref_23","first-page":"40","article-title":"Arab-Persian land relationships in late Sasanid Oman","volume":"6","author":"Wilkinson","year":"1973","journal-title":"Proc. Semin. Arab. Stud."},{"key":"ref_24","first-page":"377","article-title":"Oman and Bahrain in late antiquity: The Sasanian\u2019s Arabian periphery","volume":"41","author":"Ulrich","year":"2011","journal-title":"Proc. Semin. Arab. Stud."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"264","DOI":"10.1111\/aae.12102","article-title":"Oman and late Sasanian imperialism","volume":"28","author":"Munt","year":"2017","journal-title":"Arab. Archaeol. Epigr."},{"key":"ref_26","first-page":"40","article-title":"The archaeology of Early Islam in Oman: Recent Discoveries from Fulayj on the Batinah","volume":"2019","author":"Priestman","year":"2019","journal-title":"Anglo-Omani Soc. Rev."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"499","DOI":"10.1016\/0146-6380(90)90095-H","article-title":"The use of silicalite for rapid isolation of branched and cyclic fractions in petroleum","volume":"15","author":"West","year":"1990","journal-title":"Org. Geochem."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"977","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jas.2010.11.012","article-title":"Chemical Evidence for Wine Production Around 4000 BCE in the Late Chalcolithic Near Eastern Highlands","volume":"38","author":"Barnard","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Archaeol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jas.2016.03.003","article-title":"Prehistoric Wine Making at Dikili Tash (Northern Greece): Integrating Residue Analysis and Archaeobotany","volume":"74","author":"Garnier","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Archaeol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1672","DOI":"10.1021\/ac035082z","article-title":"Liquid Chromatograhy with Mass Spectrometry in Tandem Mode Applied for the Identification of Wine Markers from Ancient Egyptian Vessels","volume":"76","year":"2004","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E10309","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1714728114","article-title":"Early Neolithic Wine of Georgia in the South Caucasus","volume":"114","author":"McGovern","year":"2017","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_32","first-page":"16","article-title":"Is it possible to identify ancient wine production using biomolecular approaches?","volume":"6","author":"Drieu","year":"2020","journal-title":"STAR Sci. Technol. Archaeol. Res."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1463","DOI":"10.1007\/s00216-010-4479-9","article-title":"Formation of pyranoanthocyanins in red wines: A new and diverse class of anthocyanin derivatives","volume":"401","author":"Mateus","year":"2011","journal-title":"Anal. Bioanal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6866","DOI":"10.1021\/jf300998p","article-title":"Formation of Vitisins and Anthocyanin-Flavanol Adducts during Red Grape Drying","volume":"60","author":"Marquez","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Agric. Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1144","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2005.11.024","article-title":"Formation of the Highly Stable Pyranoanthocyanins (Vitisins A and B) in Red Wines by the Addition of Pyruvic Acid and Acetaldehyde","volume":"100","author":"Morata","year":"2007","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"Elezi, G., Whitelegge, J., Connan, J., Barnard, H., and Faull, K.F. A Novel Analytical Technique for Characterization of Ancient Wine Biomarkers in Archaeological Pottery. University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA. 2026, manuscript to be submitted."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0207","DOI":"10.14195\/2976-0232_2_7","article-title":"In vino veritas: An assessment of current research of amphorae contents from Conimbriga (Portugal)","volume":"2","author":"Buraca","year":"2025","journal-title":"DIAITA Food Herit."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"900","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jas.2008.11.024","article-title":"Wine and Olive Oil Permeation in Pitched and Non-Pitched Ceramics: Relation with Results from Archaeological Amphorae from Sagalassos, Turkey","volume":"36","author":"Romanus","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Archaeol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_39","first-page":"515","article-title":"Use and reuse of amphorae. Wine residues in Dressel 2-4 amphorae from Oplontis Villa B (Torre Annunziata, Italy)","volume":"12","author":"Pecci","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Archaeol. Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"Forbes, R.J. (1955). Studies in Ancient Technology. Bitumen and Petroleum in Antiquity, E.J. Brill. [1st ed.]."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Marschner, R.F., and Wright, H.T. (1978). Asphalt from Middle Eastern Archaeological Sites. Archaeological Chemistry 1, American Chemical Society. Advances in Chemistry Series 1978.","DOI":"10.1021\/ba-1978-0171.ch010"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2743","DOI":"10.1016\/0016-7037(92)90357-O","article-title":"Molecular archaeology: Export of Dead Sea asphalt to Canaan and Egypt in the Chalcolithic-Early Bronze Age (4th\u20133rd millennium BC)","volume":"56","author":"Connan","year":"1992","journal-title":"Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"Pike, S., and Gitin, S. (1999). Application of organic geochemistry to the study of Dead Sea asphalt in archaeological sites from Israel and Egypt. The Practical Impact of Science on Near Eastern and Aegean Archaeology, Archetype Publications Ltd.. Wiener laboratory Publication 3."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.3406\/paleo.1999.989","article-title":"Reconstructing Mesopotamian exchange networks in the 4th millenium BC: Geochemical and archaeological analyses of bitumen artifacts from Hacinebi Tepe, Turkey","volume":"25","author":"Schwartz","year":"2000","journal-title":"Pal\u00e9orient"},{"key":"ref_45","first-page":"283","article-title":"The bituminous mixtures of Tell Kosak Shamali on the Upper Euphrates (Syria) from the Early Ubaid to the Post Ubaid: Composition of mixtures and origin of bitumen","volume":"Volume II","author":"Nishiaki","year":"2003","journal-title":"Tell Kosak Shamali-The Archaeological Investigations on the Upper Euphrates, Syria; Chalcolithic Technology and Subsistence"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1768","DOI":"10.1016\/j.orggeochem.2006.08.015","article-title":"Asphalt in iron age excavations from the Philistine Tel Miqne-Ekron city (Israel): Origin and trade routes","volume":"37","author":"Connan","year":"2006","journal-title":"Org. Geochem."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-0471.2007.00283.x","article-title":"A geochemical study of bituminous mixtures from Failaka and Umm an-Namel (Kuwait), from the Early Dilmun to the Early Islamic period","volume":"18","author":"Connan","year":"2007","journal-title":"Arab. Archaeol. Epigr."},{"key":"ref_48","unstructured":"Connan, J. (2012). Le Bitume dans l\u2019Antiquit\u00e9, Errance-Actes Sud."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"66","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jas.2013.12.012","article-title":"Sourcing archaeological asphaltum (bitumen) from the California Channel Islands to submarine seeps","volume":"43","author":"Brown","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Archaeol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_50","first-page":"884","article-title":"The Uruk expansion as dynamic process: A reconstruction of Middle to Late Uruk exchange patterns from bulk isotope analyses of bitumen artifacts","volume":"7","author":"Schwartz","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Archaeol. Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_51","first-page":"657","article-title":"Chemical analysis of bitumen paint on classic period Central Veracruz ceramics, Mexico","volume":"17","author":"Daneels","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Archaeol. Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.orggeochem.2017.09.007","article-title":"A geochemical study of bitumen residues on ceramics excavated from Early Bronze graves (3000\u20132900 BCE) at Ba\u015fur H\u00f6y\u00fck in SE Turkey","volume":"115","author":"Connan","year":"2018","journal-title":"Org. Geochem."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104392","DOI":"10.1016\/j.orggeochem.2022.104392","article-title":"Bitumens from Tell Yarmuth (Israel) from 2800 BCE to 1100 BCE: A unique case history for the study of degradation effects on the Dead Sea bitumen","volume":"168","author":"Connan","year":"2022","journal-title":"Org. Geochem."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jas.2005.06.012","article-title":"Sourcing archaeological bitumen in the Olmec region","volume":"33","author":"Wendt","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Archaeol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_55","first-page":"115","article-title":"A catalogue of Iranian Mesostigmata (Acari): Additions and updates of the previous catalogue","volume":"7","author":"Nemati","year":"2018","journal-title":"Persian J. Acarol."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"977","DOI":"10.1016\/S0146-6380(00)00109-1","article-title":"Abiotic oxidation of bitumens under natural conditions","volume":"31","author":"Lemoine","year":"2000","journal-title":"Org. Geochem."},{"key":"ref_57","unstructured":"Ashkan, S.A.M. (1998). Geochimie Organique des Roches M\u00e8res et des Huiles du Basin de Zagros (Iran), Th\u00e8se de Universit\u00e9 Henri Poincar\u00e9."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-0471.2005.00041.x","article-title":"A comparative study of bituminous boat remains from H3, As-Sabiyah (Kuwait) and RJ-2, Ra\u2019s al-Jinz (Oman)","volume":"16","author":"Connan","year":"2005","journal-title":"Arab. Archaeol. Epigr."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-0471.1998.tb00116.x","article-title":"The archaeological bitumen of Bahrain from the early Dilmun period (c. 2200 BC) to the sixteenth century AD: A problem of source and trade","volume":"9","author":"Connan","year":"1998","journal-title":"Arab. Archaeol. Epigr."},{"key":"ref_60","first-page":"103348","article-title":"Geochemistry and origin of bituminous samples of Kuriki H\u00f6y\u00fck (SE Turkey) from 4000 BCE to 200 CE: Comparison with Kavu\u015fan H\u00f6y\u00fck, Hakemi Use and Salat Tepe","volume":"41","author":"Connan","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Archaeol. Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"D\u00fcring, B.S., and Akkermans, P.M.M.M. (2023). Chemical Study of Bitumens from Tell Sabi Abyad (Syria) from 7000 BCE to 1150BCE. Style and Society in the Prehistory of West Asia Essays in Honour of Oliver P. Nieuwenhuyse, Sidestone Press. Chapter 5.","DOI":"10.59641\/oel8d7fg"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109556","DOI":"10.1016\/j.petrol.2021.109556","article-title":"Organic geochemistry of hydrocarbon seeps associated with sulfurous spring water, western Iraq: Biodegradation, source rock and sedimentary environment","volume":"208","author":"Alkhafagi","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Pet. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"554","DOI":"10.1007\/s12517-020-05579-1","article-title":"Biodegradation and the origin of surface bitumens in the Paleocene Kolosh Formation, Northern Iraq","volume":"13","author":"Alkhafagi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Arab. J. Geosci."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104786","DOI":"10.1016\/j.marpetgeo.2020.104786","article-title":"Origin biodegradation, and water washing of bitumen from the Mishraq Sulfur Mine, northern Iraq","volume":"124","author":"Alkhafagi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mar. Pet. Geol."},{"key":"ref_65","first-page":"1255","article-title":"Relationship between petroleum composition and depositional environment of petroleum source rocks","volume":"69","author":"Moldowan","year":"1985","journal-title":"Am. Assoc. Pet. Geol. Bull."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1016\/0146-6380(86)90015-X","article-title":"Peculiarities of salt lake sediments as potential source rocks in China","volume":"10","author":"Fu","year":"1986","journal-title":"Org. Geochem."},{"key":"ref_67","unstructured":"Akazawa, T., Aoki, K., and Bar Yosef, O. (1998). Bitumen as hafting material on Middle Paleolithic artefacts from the El Kown Basin, Syria. Neanderthals and Modern Humans in Western Asia, Plenum."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"633","DOI":"10.1016\/0146-6380(84)90085-8","article-title":"Source correlation of biodegraded oils","volume":"6","author":"Seifert","year":"1984","journal-title":"Org. Geochem."},{"key":"ref_69","unstructured":"Albrecht, P., Moldowan, M., and Philp, P. (1991). In vitro biodegradation of steranes and terpanes: A clue to understanding geological situations. Biological Markers in Sediments and Petroleum, Prentice-Hall."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"640","DOI":"10.1038\/351640a0","article-title":"Biodegradation of refractory hydrocarbons from petroleum under laboratory conditions","volume":"351","author":"Chosson","year":"1991","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_71","unstructured":"Elezi, G., Faull, K., Connan, J., Barnard, H., and Whitelegge, J. (June, January 31). New Biomarkers for the Characterization of Ancient Wine Molecules in Archaeological Ceramics. Proceedings of the Poster at the 74th ASMS Conference on Mass Spectrometry and Allied Topics, San Diego, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_72","unstructured":"Gachet-Bizollon, J. (2011). Les m\u00e9langes bitumineux de Tell Akkaz, The bituminous mixture of Tell Akkaz (Kuwait). Le Tell d\u2019Akkaz au Koweit\/Tell Akkaz in Kuwait, TOM 57. Chapitre XV."}],"container-title":["Molecules"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1420-3049\/31\/15\/2571\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,25]],"date-time":"2026-07-25T04:25:07Z","timestamp":1784953507000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1420-3049\/31\/15\/2571"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,23]]},"references-count":72,"journal-issue":{"issue":"15","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8]]}},"alternative-id":["molecules31152571"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/molecules31152571","relation":{},"ISSN":["1420-3049"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1420-3049","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,23]]}}}