{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,15]],"date-time":"2026-10-15T22:13:23Z","timestamp":1792102403235,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":73,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"15","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,28]],"date-time":"2026-07-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1785196800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001871","name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e Tecnologia","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["PTDC\/EAM-AMB\/30975\/2017 (Project GreenFuel)"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PTDC\/EAM-AMB\/30975\/2017 (Project GreenFuel)"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001871","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["PTDC\/EAM-AMB\/30975\/2017 (Project GreenFuel)"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PTDC\/EAM-AMB\/30975\/2017 (Project GreenFuel)"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/00snfqn58","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Infraestrutura de Investiga\u00e7\u00e3o para a Biomassa e a Bioenergia","award":["LISBOA2030-FEDER-01318200"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["LISBOA2030-FEDER-01318200"]}]},{"award":["LISBOA2030-FEDER-01318200"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["LISBOA2030-FEDER-01318200"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/02jtacs89","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Molecules"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The integration of microalgae cultivation into biorefinery systems represents a promising strategy to enhance carbon dioxide (CO2) sequestration and support sustainable biomass production for diverse biotechnological applications. This study reports the CO2 fixation performance and biomass productivity of a two-stage photobioreactor (PBR) system employed for the continuous cultivation of Haematococcus pluvialis, utilizing biogenic CO2 generated from a heterotrophic culture. The first stage (ST1) operated as an autotrophic chemostat (ST1 PBR) with variable dilution rates (0.18\u20131.00 d\u22121), while the second stage (ST2) consisted of sequential high-irradiance columns that promoted biomass and carotenoid accumulation. The two-stage PBR (ST1 + ST2 PBR) achieved a maximum CO2 assimilation capacity of 0.747g\/L\/d and up to 94% CO2 fixation efficiency. The daily CO2 assimilation rate reached 6.53 g\/d, representing a 10% improvement compared with the single-stage system (ST1 PBR). The maximum overall biomass productivity reached 0.332 g\/L\/d when both PBR stages were operated together, whereas the second stage alone achieved up to 1.18 g\/L\/d under continuous operation and a maximum biomass concentration of 3.33 g\/L during batch-induced carotenogenesis. Nutrient uptake analysis revealed an increasing fraction of unconsumed major nutrients with higher dilution rates. Continuous operation under high irradiance did not induce pigment accumulation, whereas batch mode successfully triggered carotenogenesis over 13 days, resulting in visible pigment production and high biomass yield. Overall, the two-stage PBR system demonstrated high CO2 capture efficiency, enhanced biomass productivity, and operational flexibility, offering a scalable and sustainable approach for integrating microalgal cultivation into biorefineries while contributing to carbon mitigation and circular bioeconomy goals.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules31152627","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,28]],"date-time":"2026-07-28T14:37:00Z","timestamp":1785249420000},"page":"2627","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Enhanced CO2 Fixation Through Continuous Cultivation of Microalgae in a Two-Stage Photobioreactor System"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"31","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8671-0331","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jo\u00e3o","family":"Tavares","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Unidade de Bioenergia e Biorrefinarias, LNEG\u2014Laboratorio Nacional de Energia e Geologia I.P., Estrada do Pa\u00e7o do Lumiar 22, 1649-038 Lisboa, Portugal"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0955-4467","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Susana M.","family":"Paix\u00e3o","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Unidade de Bioenergia e Biorrefinarias, LNEG\u2014Laboratorio Nacional de Energia e Geologia I.P., Estrada do Pa\u00e7o do Lumiar 22, 1649-038 Lisboa, Portugal"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0120-557X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tiago P.","family":"Silva","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Unidade de Bioenergia e Biorrefinarias, LNEG\u2014Laboratorio Nacional de Energia e Geologia I.P., Estrada do Pa\u00e7o do Lumiar 22, 1649-038 Lisboa, Portugal"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6245-775X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lu\u00eds","family":"Alves","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Unidade de Bioenergia e Biorrefinarias, LNEG\u2014Laboratorio Nacional de Energia e Geologia I.P., Estrada do Pa\u00e7o do Lumiar 22, 1649-038 Lisboa, Portugal"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3865","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biombioe.2011.05.014","article-title":"Microalgal biomass production and carbon dioxide sequestration from an integrated ethanol biorefinery in Iowa: A technical appraisal and economic feasibility evaluation","volume":"35","author":"Rosenberg","year":"2011","journal-title":"Biomass Bioenergy"},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"100722","article-title":"Harnessing the potential of microalgae in sequestration of CO2 emissions: Removal mechanisms, optimization strategies, and bioenergy production","volume":"18","author":"Adetunji","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. 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