{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,14]],"date-time":"2026-08-14T08:30:33Z","timestamp":1786696233572,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":47,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"16","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,14]],"date-time":"2026-08-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1786665600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Faculty of Agriculture and Forestry, Department of Chemistry","award":["30.610.002-110"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["30.610.002-110"]}]},{"award":["30.610.002-110"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["30.610.002-110"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/05s4feg49","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Molecules"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This study evaluated the phytotoxicity of diesel oil (DO) using the green alga Pseudokirchneriella subcapitata and the aquatic plant Lemna minor. Toxic effects were assessed in 7-day Algaltoxkit and Lemna bioassays by measuring growth, chlorophyll fluorescence, and biogenic amine (BA) content. L. minor was less sensitive to DO in terms of growth than the alga. Toxicity thresholds (LOEC, 7 days) showed that DO concentrations above 0.11\u20130.12% significantly inhibited the growth and productivity of both model organisms. Chlorophyll fluorescence proved to be an early and sensitive indicator of DO toxicity. This study also provides the first characterization of BAs in P. subcapitata, identifying histamine, tyramine, putrescine, cadaverine, agmatine, spermidine, and spermine. Agmatine emerged as a common indicator of DO contamination in both species. Its content decreased in P. subcapitata (EC50 = 0.85%) but increased in L. minor (EC50 = 0.38%) under diesel exposure. The findings herein suggest that BA profiling, especially agmatine, can support early detection of hydrocarbon stress in aquatic organisms.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules31162838","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,14]],"date-time":"2026-08-14T08:08:29Z","timestamp":1786694909000},"page":"2838","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Biogenic Amines as Biomarkers for the Assessment of Diesel-Contaminated Water Toxicity"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"31","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9177-6856","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"\u0141ukasz","family":"Sikorski","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Agriculture and Forestry, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Pl. \u0141\u00f3dzki 4, 10-727 Olsztyn, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3649-4252","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Agnieszka","family":"B\u0119\u015b","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Agriculture and Forestry, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Pl. \u0141\u00f3dzki 4, 10-727 Olsztyn, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8546-9390","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Wojciech","family":"Truszkowski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Agrotechnology and Agribusiness, Faculty of Agriculture and Forestry, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, M. Oczapowskiego 8, 10-719 Olsztyn, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6073-0860","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Amit","family":"Kumar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Hydrology and Water Resources, Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology, Nanjing 210044, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6021-5340","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Andrzej","family":"Brandyk","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Environmental Engineering, Warsaw University of Life Sciences, Nowoursynowska 159, 02-776 Warsaw, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3526-5944","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maja","family":"Radziemska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Environmental Engineering, Warsaw University of Life Sciences, Nowoursynowska 159, 02-776 Warsaw, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"890","DOI":"10.1080\/10473220390237467","article-title":"Petroleum Mineral Oil Refining and Evaluation of Cancer Hazard","volume":"18","author":"Mackerer","year":"2003","journal-title":"Appl. Occup. Environ. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yang, R., Peng, C., Ye, Y., Tang, Y., and Lu, L. (2023). Succession Patterns of Microbial Composition and Activity Following the Diesel Spill in an Urban River. Microorganisms, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms11030698"},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"WOO (2025). World Oil Outlook 2050 Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries, WOO."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Khalid, F.E., Lim, Z.S., Sabri, S., Gomez-Fuentes, C., Zulkharnain, A., and Ahmad, S.A. (2021). Bioremediation of Diesel Contaminated Marine Water by Bacteria: A Review and Bibliometric Analysis. J. Mar. Sci. Eng., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/jmse9020155"},{"key":"ref_5","first-page":"301","article-title":"Influence of applying halloysite and zeolite to soil contaminated with nickel on the content of selected elements in Maize (Zea mays L.)","volume":"32","author":"Radziemska","year":"2013","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. Trans."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1379","DOI":"10.1590\/S1516-89132011000600025","article-title":"Effect of Soil Contaminated by Diesel Oil on the Germination of Seeds and the Growth of Schinus Terebinthifolius Raddi (Anacardiaceae) Seedlings","volume":"54","author":"Bona","year":"2011","journal-title":"Braz. Arch. Biol. Technol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"286","DOI":"10.1080\/10473289.2007.10465333","article-title":"A Comparison of Acute Toxicity of Biodiesel, Biodiesel Blends, and Diesel on Aquatic Organisms","volume":"57","author":"Khan","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Air Waste Manag. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"144030","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2024.144030","article-title":"Cellular and Biochemical Alterations Induced by Diesel Oil in the Brown Alga Sargassum Cymosum Var. Stenophyllum Cultured in Vitro","volume":"372","author":"Oliveira","year":"2025","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"109","article-title":"Impact of Kerosene, Diesel and Gasoline Treatments on the Morphology, Growth Indices and Plant Based Component of an Aquatic Macrophyte Eichhornia Crassipes","volume":"3","author":"Eguagie","year":"2021","journal-title":"NIPES-J. Sci. Technol. Res."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"538","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoenv.2017.04.052","article-title":"Toxicity of Diesel Water Accommodated Fraction toward Microalgae, Pseudokirchneriella Subcapitata and Chlorella sp. MM3","volume":"142","author":"Ramadass","year":"2017","journal-title":"Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf."},{"key":"ref_11","first-page":"216","article-title":"Heavy metal accumulation in bioindicators of pollution in urban areas of northeastern Poland","volume":"24","author":"Mazur","year":"2015","journal-title":"Fresenius Environ. Bull."},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"OECD (2011). Test No. 201: Freshwater Alga and Cyanobacteria, Growth Inhibition Test, OECD."},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"Efroymson, R.A., Will, M.E., Suter, G.W., and Wooten, I.A.C. (1997). Toxicological Benchmarks for Screening Contaminants of Potential Concern for Effects on Terrestrial Plants: 1997 Revision, Oak Ridge National Laboratory."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"European Chemicals Agency (ECHA) (2026, July 15). Registration Dossier: Fuels, Diesel (EC No. 269-822-7; CAS No. 68334-30-5), Available online: https:\/\/echa.europa.eu\/registration-dossier\/-\/registered-dossier\/7243."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"763","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoenv.2018.06.053","article-title":"Different Responses to Soil Petroleum Contamination in Monocultured and Mixed Plant Systems","volume":"161","author":"Xie","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coldregions.2013.08.011","article-title":"Long-Term Effects of Nutrient Addition and Phytoremediation on Diesel and Crude Oil Contaminated Soils in Subarctic Alaska","volume":"96","author":"Leewis","year":"2013","journal-title":"Cold Reg. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_17","first-page":"777","article-title":"Evaluaci\u00f3n Del Riesgo Ambiental Por Petr\u00f3leo Crudo En Las Especies Acu\u00e1ticas Lemna Minor, Daphnia Magna y Danio Rerio","volume":"45","author":"Iannacone","year":"2021","journal-title":"Rev. Acad. Colomb. Cienc. Exactas Fis. Nat."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"(2005). Water Quality-Determination of Toxic Effect of Water Constituents and Wastewater on Duckweed (Lemma Minor)-Duckweed Growth Inhibition Test (Standard No. ISO 20079:2005)."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1681","DOI":"10.1016\/j.celrep.2015.02.034","article-title":"Tetracyclines Disturb Mitochondrial Function across Eukaryotic Models: A Call for Caution in Biomedical Research","volume":"10","author":"Moullan","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cell Rep."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10587","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-019-04328-6","article-title":"Long-Term Responses of Scots Pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) and European Beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) to the Contamination of Light Soils with Diesel Oil","volume":"26","author":"Adomas","year":"2019","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"149","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envexpbot.2017.11.001","article-title":"Can Chlorophyll-a Fluorescence Parameters Be Used as Bio-Indicators to Distinguish between Drought and Salinity Stress in Tilia Cordata Mill?","volume":"152","author":"Kalaji","year":"2018","journal-title":"Environ. Exp. Bot."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"52","DOI":"10.1104\/pp.010317","article-title":"Responses of Photosynthetic Electron Transport in Stomatal Guard Cells and Mesophyll Cells in Intact Leaves to Light, CO2, and Humidity","volume":"128","author":"Lawson","year":"2002","journal-title":"Plant Physiol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ufug.2006.03.002","article-title":"An Assessment of the Drought Tolerance of Fraxinus Genotypes for Urban Landscape Plantings","volume":"5","author":"Percival","year":"2006","journal-title":"Urban For. Urban Green."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envexpbot.2017.12.001","article-title":"Altitude of Origin Influences the Responses of PSII Photochemistry to Heat Waves in European Beech (Fagus sylvatica L.)","volume":"152","author":"Kalaji","year":"2018","journal-title":"Environ. Exp. Bot."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"294","DOI":"10.1021\/acsagscitech.4c00753","article-title":"Biogenic Amino Acids Facilitate the Management of Plant Health and Stress Tolerance for a Modern Sustainable Approach","volume":"5","author":"Karunarathne","year":"2025","journal-title":"ACS Agric. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1131","DOI":"10.15666\/aeer\/1503_11311148","article-title":"Role of Decarboxylases in the Biosynthesis of Biogenic Amines of Pea Growing in Soil Contaminated with Lomefloxacin","volume":"15","author":"Baciak","year":"2017","journal-title":"Appl. Ecol. Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"243","DOI":"10.4161\/psb.6.2.14317","article-title":"Polyamine Metabolic Canalization in Response to Drought Stress in Arabidopsis and the Resurrection Plant Craterostigma Plantagineum","volume":"6","author":"Bartels","year":"2011","journal-title":"Plant Signal. Behav."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, D., Shao, Q., Yin, L., Younis, A., and Zheng, B. (2019). Polyamine Function in Plants: Metabolism, Regulation on Development, and Roles in Abiotic Stress Responses. Front. Plant Sci., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpls.2018.01945"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126752","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2020.126752","article-title":"Exposure of Lemna minor L. to Gentian Violet or Congo Red Is Associated with Changes in the Biosynthesis Pathway of Biogenic Amines","volume":"254","author":"Adomas","year":"2020","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s00425-014-2055-9","article-title":"The Roles of Polyamines during the Lifespan of Plants: From Development to Stress","volume":"240","author":"Tiburcio","year":"2014","journal-title":"Planta"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s10725-015-0027-0","article-title":"Zinc Conferred Cadmium Tolerance in Lemna minor L. via Modulating Polyamines and Proline Metabolism","volume":"77","author":"Qiao","year":"2015","journal-title":"Plant Growth Regul."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wyszkowski, M., and Kordala, N. (2025). Geochemical Behaviour of Trace Elements in Diesel Oil-Contaminated Soil During Remediation Assisted by Mineral and Organic Sorbents. Appl. Sci., 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/app15158650"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yan, L., Hui, N., Simpanen, S., Tudeer, L., and Romantschuk, M. (2020). Simulation of Microbial Response to Accidental Diesel Spills in Basins Containing Brackish Sea Water and Sediment. Front. Microbiol., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2020.593232"},{"key":"ref_34","first-page":"1707","article-title":"Mechanisms of Photoinduced Toxicity of Photomodified Anthracene to Plants: Inhibition of Photosynthesis in the Aquatic Higher Plant Lemna gibba (Duckweed)","volume":"16","author":"Huang","year":"1997","journal-title":"Environ. Toxicol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"462","DOI":"10.1002\/tox.10080","article-title":"Sites of Toxicity of Specific Photooxidation Products of Anthracene to Higher Plants: Inhibition of Photosynthetic Activity and Electron Transport in Lemna gibba L. G-3 (Duckweed)","volume":"17","author":"Mallakin","year":"2002","journal-title":"Environ. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"890","DOI":"10.1002\/etc.5620200425","article-title":"Chlorophyll Fluorescence as a Bioindicator of Effects on Growth in Aquatic Macrophytes from Mixtures of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons","volume":"20","author":"Marwood","year":"2001","journal-title":"Environ. Toxicol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4975","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-020-11496-3","article-title":"Aquatic Plants and Ecotoxicological Assessment in Freshwater Ecosystems: A Review","volume":"28","author":"Ceschin","year":"2021","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res."},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"(2022). Automotive Fuels\u2014Diesel\u2014Requirements and Test Methods (Standard No. EN 590:2022)."},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"(2003). Testing of Mineral Oil Hydrocarbons\u2014Determination of Ignition Temperature (Standard No. DIN 51794:2003-05)."},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"(2004). Petroleum Products\u2014Transparent and Opaque Liquids\u2014Determination of Kinematic Viscosity and Calculation of Dynamic Viscosity (Standard No. PN-EN ISO 3104:2004)."},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"(2012). Water Quality-Fresh Water Algal Growth Inhibition Test with Unicellular Green Algae (Standard No. ISO 8692:2012)."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sikorski, \u0141. (2021). Effects of Sodium Chloride on Algae and Crustaceans\u2014The Neighbouring Links of the Water Trophic Chain. Water, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/w13182493"},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"OECD (2002). Oecd Guidelines for the Testing of Chemicals Revised Proposal for a New Guideline 221, OECD."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1016\/S0378-4347(00)00286-3","article-title":"Analysis of Amines in Plant Materials","volume":"747","author":"Bouchereau","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Chromatogr. B Biomed. Sci. Appl."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pestbp.2011.01.002","article-title":"Phytotoxicity of Roundup Ultra 360 SL in Aquatic Ecosystems: Biochemical Evaluation with Duckweed (Lemna minor L.) as a Model Plant","volume":"99","author":"Kielak","year":"2011","journal-title":"Pestic. Biochem. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"70","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aquatox.2019.01.021","article-title":"The Effects of Glyphosate-Based Herbicide Formulations on Lemna Minor, a Non-Target Species","volume":"209","author":"Sikorski","year":"2019","journal-title":"Aquat. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107142","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aquatox.2024.107142","article-title":"Ion-Exchange Chromatography in the Assessment of Environmental Pollution with Chlortetracycline","volume":"277","author":"Sikorski","year":"2024","journal-title":"Aquat. Toxicol."}],"container-title":["Molecules"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1420-3049\/31\/16\/2838\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,14]],"date-time":"2026-08-14T08:09:18Z","timestamp":1786694958000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1420-3049\/31\/16\/2838"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,14]]},"references-count":47,"journal-issue":{"issue":"16","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8]]}},"alternative-id":["molecules31162838"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/molecules31162838","relation":{},"ISSN":["1420-3049"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1420-3049","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,14]]}}}