{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,20]],"date-time":"2026-10-20T19:06:40Z","timestamp":1792523200822,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":177,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"17","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,22]],"date-time":"2026-08-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1787356800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Molecules"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background\/Objectives: Microplastics (MPs) and nanoplastics (NPs) have emerged as ubiquitous environmental contaminants resulting from the extensive production, use, and degradation of plastic materials. Human exposure occurs primarily through contaminated food and drinking water, with inhalation representing an additional important route. Growing concern has focused on the ability of these particles, particularly NPs, to cross biological barriers, enter the systemic circulation, and reach human tissues. The aim of this review was to summarize current evidence on dietary exposure to MPs and NPs, their gastrointestinal bioavailability and toxicokinetics, and their potential systemic health effects, with particular emphasis on organ-specific responses, underlying biological mechanisms, and the strength and limitations of the available evidence. Methods: A comprehensive narrative review of the scientific literature published between 2000 and 2026 was conducted using PubMed\/MEDLINE, Scopus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar. Original research articles and review papers addressing dietary exposure, occurrence in food and drinking water, migration from food-contact materials, gastrointestinal absorption, translocation, biodistribution, bioaccumulation, elimination, molecular mechanisms, and potential organ-specific or systemic health effects were included. Publications without full-text availability, conference proceedings, editorials, commentaries, duplicate publications, and studies without relevance to human exposure or health were excluded. Results: Food, drinking water, beverages, and food-contact materials represent important sources of human exposure to MPs and NPs. Following ingestion, most larger particles are eliminated through the gastrointestinal tract, whereas smaller MPs and particularly NPs may cross biological barriers and potentially reach the systemic circulation and distant tissues. Experimental studies consistently identify interconnected biological responses involving oxidative stress, inflammation, mitochondrial dysfunction, barrier impairment, immune dysregulation, genotoxicity, apoptosis, and endocrine disruption. These mechanisms have been associated with alterations in the gastrointestinal, respiratory, cardiovascular, nervous, urinary, reproductive, endocrine, and skeletal systems and with biological processes relevant to carcinogenesis. However, most mechanistic evidence derives from in vitro and animal models, whereas human evidence remains limited and predominantly observational. Consequently, the extent to which these experimental findings translate into clinically significant effects in humans remains uncertain. Conclusions: Current evidence supports the biological plausibility of systemic effects associated with MNP exposure but is insufficient to establish causal relationships between chronic dietary exposure and specific human diseases. The detection of MNPs in human tissues and reported associations with pathological conditions should therefore be interpreted cautiously. Standardized analytical methods, improved characterization of realistic human exposure, and well-designed longitudinal epidemiological studies integrating quantitative exposure assessment with validated clinical outcomes are required to clarify dose\u2013response relationships, long-term health effects, and the clinical significance of MNP exposure.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules31172945","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,24]],"date-time":"2026-08-24T09:20:02Z","timestamp":1787563202000},"page":"2945","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Microplastics and Nanoplastics in the Human Diet: Sources of Exposure, Bioavailability, Toxicokinetics, and Systemic Health Effects"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"31","author":[{"given":"\u0141ukasz","family":"Kogut","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Bioenergetics, Food Analysis and Microbiology, Institute of Food Technology and Nutrition, Faculty of Technology and Life Science, University of Rzesz\u00f3w, Aleja Rejtana 16C, 35-959 Rzesz\u00f3w, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Czes\u0142aw","family":"Puchalski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Bioenergetics, Food Analysis and Microbiology, Institute of Food Technology and Nutrition, Faculty of Technology and Life Science, University of Rzesz\u00f3w, Aleja Rejtana 16C, 35-959 Rzesz\u00f3w, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9921-0881","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Julia","family":"Jastrz\u0119bska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Medical Centre in \u0141a\u0144cut LLC, Ignacego Paderewskiego 5, 37-100 \u0141a\u0144cut, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6792-6575","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Grzegorz","family":"Zagu\u0142a","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Bioenergetics, Food Analysis and Microbiology, Institute of Food Technology and Nutrition, Faculty of Technology and Life Science, University of Rzesz\u00f3w, Aleja Rejtana 16C, 35-959 Rzesz\u00f3w, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,22]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102","DOI":"10.24425\/aep.2022.143713","article-title":"Removal of microplastics in unit processes used in water and wastewater treatment: A review","volume":"48","author":"Bodzek","year":"2022","journal-title":"Arch. Environ. Prot."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Campanale, C., Massarelli, C., Savino, I., Locaputo, V., and Uricchio, V.F. (2020). A detailed review study on potential effects of microplastics and additives of concern on human health. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph17041212"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kannan, K., and Vimalkumar, K. (2021). A review of human exposure to microplastics and insights into microplastics as obesogens. Front. Endocrinol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2021.724989"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, X., Yu, C., Wang, P., and Yang, C. (2025). Microplastics and human health: Unraveling the toxicological pathways and implications for public health. Front. Public Health, 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2025.1567200"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1013","DOI":"10.1007\/s13534-025-00511-6","article-title":"Microplastics in human body: Accumulation, natural clearance, and biomedical detoxification strategies","volume":"15","author":"Hong","year":"2025","journal-title":"Biomed. Eng. Lett."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kochanek, A., Gr\u0105\u017c, K., Potok, H., Gronba-Chy\u0142a, A., Kwa\u015bny, J., Wiewi\u00f3rska, I., Ciu\u0142a, J., Basta, E., and \u0141api\u0144ski, J. (2025). Micro- and nanoplastics in the environment: Current state of research, sources of origin, health risks, and regulations\u2014A comprehensive review. Toxics, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxics13070564"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2018JC014719","DOI":"10.1029\/2018JC014719","article-title":"A global perspective on microplastics","volume":"125","author":"Hale","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Oceans"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104191","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ebiom.2022.104191","article-title":"Should we worry about the accumulation of microplastics in human organs?","volume":"82","author":"Sorci","year":"2022","journal-title":"eBioMedicine"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e13503","DOI":"10.7717\/peerj.13503","article-title":"Harmful effects of the microplastic pollution on animal health: A literature review","volume":"10","author":"Zolotova","year":"2022","journal-title":"PeerJ"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Abbas, G., Ahmed, U., and Ahmad, M.A. (2025). Impact of microplastics on human health: Risks, diseases, and affected body systems. Microplastics, 4.","DOI":"10.3390\/microplastics4020023"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22843","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.3c09524","article-title":"Effects of microplastic exposure on human digestive, reproductive, and respiratory health: A rapid systematic review","volume":"58","author":"Chartres","year":"2024","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101620","DOI":"10.1016\/j.redox.2020.101620","article-title":"Micro- and nano-plastics activation of oxidative and inflammatory adverse outcome pathways","volume":"37","author":"Hu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Redox Biol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, Y., Ren, J., Zheng, B., Sun, J., Zhang, J., Niu, Y., Shao, B., and Jin, Y. (2026). Microplastic toxicity: Mechanisms, assessment methods, and future research directions. Front. Toxicol., 8.","DOI":"10.3389\/ftox.2026.1766103"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hern\u00e1ndez, A.F., Lacasa\u00f1a, M., Tsatsakis, A.M., and Docea, A.O. (2025). Cellular and molecular mechanisms of micro- and nanoplastics driving adverse human health effects. Toxics, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxics13110921"},{"key":"ref_15","first-page":"e100295","article-title":"Impact of microplastic exposure on human health: A systematic review of mechanisms, biomarkers, and clinical outcomes","volume":"17","author":"Ririe","year":"2025","journal-title":"Cureus"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Edet, P.P., Mitra, A.K., Dennis, M., and Zaman, M.S. (2026). Harmful effects of microplastics and nanoplastics in human body systems: A systematic review. Diseases, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/diseases14030088"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4051","DOI":"10.1007\/s00204-025-04092-2","article-title":"Post-mortem evidence of microplastic bioaccumulation in human organs: Insights from advanced imaging and spectroscopic analysis","volume":"99","author":"Komaniecka","year":"2025","journal-title":"Arch. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pechci\u0144ska, A., Malejczyk, J., Tulewicz-Marti, E.M., and Ma\u0142kiewicz, K. (2025). Multiple effects of microplastic particles on human internal organs: A narrative review. Ann. Agric. Environ. Med., in press.","DOI":"10.26444\/aaem\/210744"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"158111","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2022.158111","article-title":"A review of potential human health impacts of micro- and nanoplastics exposure","volume":"851","author":"Xu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1025","DOI":"10.1007\/s10311-025-01841-8","article-title":"Occurrence, analysis, and toxicity of polyethylene terephthalate microplastics: A review","volume":"23","author":"Alaraby","year":"2025","journal-title":"Environ. Chem. Lett."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104204","DOI":"10.1016\/j.etap.2023.104204","article-title":"Microplastics: Detection in human samples, cell line studies, and health impacts","volume":"101","author":"Alfarhan","year":"2023","journal-title":"Environ. Toxicol. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1186\/s12199-020-00870-9","article-title":"Health impacts of environmental contamination of micro- and nanoplastics: A review","volume":"25","author":"Jiang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ. Health Prev. Med."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kadac-Czapska, K., O\u015bko, J., Nowak, N., Ja\u017cd\u017cewska, K., Kowalczyk, P., and Grembecka, M. (2025). Unseen hazards\u2014Toxicological effects and human health impacts of nanoplastics and microplastics. Appl. Sci., 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/app151810146"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"van Raamsdonk, L.W.D., van der Zande, M., Koelmans, A.A., Hoogenboom, R.L.A.P., Peters, R.J.B., Groot, M.J., Peijnenburg, A.A.C.M., and Weesepoel, Y.J.A. (2020). Current insights into monitoring, bioaccumulation, and potential health effects of microplastics present in the food chain. Foods, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/foods9010072"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104901","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ebiom.2023.104901","article-title":"The potential impacts of micro- and nano plastics on various organ systems in humans","volume":"99","author":"Ali","year":"2024","journal-title":"eBioMedicine"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1016\/j.marpolbul.2017.01.082","article-title":"The plastic in microplastics: A review","volume":"119","author":"Andrady","year":"2017","journal-title":"Mar. Pollut. Bull."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116966","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2023.116966","article-title":"Human biomonitoring of microplastics and health implications: A review","volume":"237","author":"Zuri","year":"2023","journal-title":"Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118535","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2024.118535","article-title":"The potential impact of nano- and microplastics on human health: Understanding human health risks","volume":"251","author":"Winiarska","year":"2024","journal-title":"Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105669","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jwpe.2024.105669","article-title":"Removal of microplas-tics and nanoplastics in water treatment processes: A systematic literature review","volume":"64","author":"Romphophak","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Water Process Eng."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"301","DOI":"10.3349\/ymj.2023.0048","article-title":"Health effects of microplastic exposures: Current issues and perspectives in South Korea","volume":"64","author":"Lee","year":"2023","journal-title":"Yonsei Med. J."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lai, H., Liu, X., and Qu, M. (2022). Nanoplastics and human health: Hazard identification and biointerface. Nanomaterials, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/nano12081298"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4350","DOI":"10.1039\/D0NA00539H","article-title":"Micro- and nanoplastics\u2014Current state of knowledge with the focus on oral uptake and toxicity","volume":"2","author":"Paul","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nanoscale Adv."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10866","DOI":"10.1021\/acsomega.4c07974","article-title":"Exposure of polystyrene micro- and nanoplastics to simulated human digestive enzymatic systems: Structural and functional implications","volume":"10","author":"Azhagesan","year":"2025","journal-title":"ACS Omega"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bora, S.S., Gogoi, R., Sharma, M.R., Borah, M.P., Deka, P., Bora, J., Naorem, R.S., Das, J., and Teli, A.B. (2024). Microplastics and human health: Unveiling the gut microbiome disruption and chronic disease risks. Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2024.1492759"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100694","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gastha.2025.100694","article-title":"Microplastics and Nanoplastics and the Digestive System","volume":"4","author":"Lazaridis","year":"2025","journal-title":"Gastro Hep Adv."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wen, J., and Lin, Y. (2025). Invisible invaders: Unveiling the carcinogenic threat of microplastics and nanoplastics in colorectal cancer\u2014A systematic review. Front. Public Health, 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2025.1653245"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chulkov, V., Gasanov, M., Isakov, V., Denisenko, A., Nwosu, C., and Rodkin, S. (2025). Molecular and cellular effects of microplastics and nanoplastics in the pathogenesis of cardiovascular, nervous, urinary, digestive, and reproductive system diseases: A global systematic review. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 26.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms262211194"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yee, M.S.-L., Hii, L.-W., Looi, C.K., Lim, W.-M., Wong, S.-F., Kok, Y.-Y., Tan, B.-K., Wong, C.-Y., and Leong, C.-O. (2021). Impact of microplastics and nanoplastics on human health. Nanomaterials, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/nano11020496"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"465","DOI":"10.1111\/jgh.70220","article-title":"Microplastics in the gastrointestinal tract: A systematic review","volume":"41","author":"Tan","year":"2026","journal-title":"J. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2024020","DOI":"10.5620\/eaht.2024020","article-title":"Health effects of microplastics and nanoplastics: Review of published case reports","volume":"39","author":"Otorkpa","year":"2024","journal-title":"Environ. Anal. Health Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e32261","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2024.e32261","article-title":"Microplastics and na-noplastics: Exposure and toxicological effects require important analysis considerations","volume":"10","author":"Tsochatzis","year":"2024","journal-title":"Heliyon"},{"key":"ref_42","first-page":"1472","article-title":"Micro(nano)plastics in food system: Potential health impacts on human intestinal system","volume":"64","author":"Wen","year":"2022","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nahiduzzaman, F., Rahman, M.Z., Akhi, M.A.J., Manik, M., Khatun, M.M., Islam, M.A., Matin, M.N., and Haque, M.A. (2025). Potential biological impacts of microplastics and nanoplastics on farm animals: Global perspectives with insights from Bangladesh. Animals, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/ani15101394"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"528","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-04489-w","article-title":"PET microplastics affect human gut microbiota communities during simulated gastrointestinal digestion, first evidence of plausible polymer biodegradation during human digestion","volume":"12","author":"Tamargo","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Urli, S., Corte Pause, F., Crociati, M., Baufeld, A., Monaci, M., and Stradaioli, G. (2023). Impact of microplastics and nanoplastics on livestock health: An emerging risk for reproductive efficiency. Animals, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/ani13071132"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104147","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ebiom.2022.104147","article-title":"Microplastics detected in cirrhotic liver tissue","volume":"82","author":"Horvatits","year":"2022","journal-title":"eBioMedicine"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16130","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-025-98268-6","article-title":"Identification and analysis of microplastics in peritumoral and tumor tissues of colorectal cancer","volume":"15","author":"Pan","year":"2025","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"44743","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-020-10573-x","article-title":"Effects of microplastics and nanoplastics on marine environment and human health","volume":"27","author":"Sana","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107273","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2022.107273","article-title":"Disturbed gut-liver axis indicating oral exposure to polystyrene microplastic potentially increases the risk of insulin resistance","volume":"164","author":"Shi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Environ. Int."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2617696","DOI":"10.1080\/19490976.2026.2617696","article-title":"Gut microbiome remodeling induced by microplastic exposure in humans","volume":"18","author":"Yang","year":"2026","journal-title":"Gut Microbes"},{"key":"ref_51","first-page":"146","article-title":"The impact of microplastics and nanoplastics on human digestive, respiratory and cardiovascular systems","volume":"30","author":"Stoian","year":"2024","journal-title":"Proc. Int. Conf. Knowl.-Based Organ."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109258","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2025.109258","article-title":"Polystyrene nanoplastics promote colitis-associated cancer by disrupting lipid metabolism and inducing DNA damage","volume":"195","author":"Tian","year":"2025","journal-title":"Environ. Int."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"40415","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-022-19745-3","article-title":"Recent advances in toxicological research and potential health impact of microplastics and nanoplastics in vivo","volume":"29","author":"Zhang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118310","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoenv.2025.118310","article-title":"Low-dose polystyrene microplastics exposure increases susceptibility to obesity-induced MASLD via disrupting intestinal barrier integrity and gut microbiota homeostasis","volume":"299","author":"Wei","year":"2025","journal-title":"Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bardawil, C.E., Dobbins, J., Lankford, S., Soloff, A.C., and Dhupar, R. (2026). Micro- and nanoplastics and pulmonary health: The current state of research. Microplastics, 5.","DOI":"10.3390\/microplastics5010029"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"381","DOI":"10.1038\/s44321-025-00353-w","article-title":"Microplastics as environmental modifiers of lung disease","volume":"18","author":"Epeslidou","year":"2025","journal-title":"EMBO Mol. Med."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100525","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envadv.2024.100525","article-title":"Transport and deposition of microplastics and nanoplastics in the human respiratory tract","volume":"16","author":"Huang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Environ. Adv."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118402","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoenv.2025.118402","article-title":"Air pollution and its impacts on health: Focus on microplastics and nanoplastics","volume":"299","author":"Wang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.1186\/s12989-024-00613-6","article-title":"Airborne micro- and nanoplastics: Emerging causes of respiratory diseases","volume":"21","author":"Gou","year":"2024","journal-title":"Part. Fibre Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"154907","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2022.154907","article-title":"Detection of microplastics in human lung tissue using \u03bcFTIR spectroscopy","volume":"831","author":"Jenner","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141676","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2020.141676","article-title":"An emerg-ing class of air pollutants: Potential effects of microplastics to respiratory human health?","volume":"749","author":"Hiemstra","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"503705","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mrgentox.2023.503705","article-title":"Nanoplastics from ground polyethylene terephthalate food containers: Genotoxicity in human lung epithelial A549 cells","volume":"892","author":"Alzaben","year":"2023","journal-title":"Mutat. Res. Genet. Toxicol. Environ. Mutagen."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117828","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoenv.2025.117828","article-title":"Microplastic exposure induces HSP90\u03b1 secretion and aggravates asthmatic airway remodeling via PI3K-Akt-mTOR pathway","volume":"291","author":"Xu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129439","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhazmat.2022.129439","article-title":"First evidence of microplastics isolated in European citizens\u2019 lower air-way","volume":"438","author":"Olmos","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Hazard. Mater."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1141","DOI":"10.1111\/resp.70107","article-title":"Microplastics in human bronchoalveolar lavage fluid","volume":"30","author":"Tokito","year":"2025","journal-title":"Respirology"},{"key":"ref_66","first-page":"101309","article-title":"Respiratory risks of microplastics and nanoplastics: Where? What? How?","volume":"7","author":"Guo","year":"2026","journal-title":"Innovation"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1186\/s12302-022-00605-3","article-title":"An emerging role of microplastics in the etiology of lung ground glass nodules","volume":"34","author":"Chen","year":"2022","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Eur."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110","DOI":"10.1186\/s42269-024-01268-1","article-title":"Impacts of micro and nanoplastics on human health","volume":"48","author":"Jayavel","year":"2024","journal-title":"Bull. Natl. Res. Cent."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Goldsworthy, A., O\u2019Callaghan, L.A., Tronstad, \u00d8., Suen, J., Chen, H., Rauert, C., Blum, C.B., Tajouri, L., Olsen, M., and Thomas, K.V. (2025). Micro- and nanoplastic-induced respiratory disease and dysfunction: A scoping review. Microplastics, 4.","DOI":"10.3390\/microplastics4040079"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cristina, M., Belli, M., Baroni, A., Moulton, C., Carinci, E., Gatti, M., Tasciotti, E., Russo, M.A., Russo, P., and Sansone, L. (2026). Nano- and microplastics in the cardiovascular system: Current insights and biological implications. Nanomaterials, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/nano16100589"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S685","DOI":"10.33549\/physiolres.935500","article-title":"Influence of micro- and nanoplastics on mitochondrial function in the cardiovascular system: A review of the current literature","volume":"73","author":"Lerchner","year":"2024","journal-title":"Physiol. Res."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Persiani, E., Cecchettini, A., Ceccherini, E., Gisone, I., Morales, M.A., and Vozzi, F. (2023). Microplastics: A matter of the heart (and vascular system). Biomedicines, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/biomedicines11020264"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"38","DOI":"10.1007\/s12012-026-10112-z","article-title":"Microplastics and nanoplastics in cardiovascular disease: An emerging cardiovascular risk factor","volume":"26","author":"Polimeni","year":"2026","journal-title":"Cardiovasc. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"992","DOI":"10.1093\/cvr\/cvaf068","article-title":"Tiny trouble: Microplastics, nanoplastics, and their heartfelt impact on cardiovascular health","volume":"121","author":"Zhang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Cardiovasc. Res."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1097\/MS9.0000000000002831","article-title":"Microplastics and nanoplastics: Emerging threats to cardiovascular health\u2014A comprehensive review","volume":"87","author":"Irfan","year":"2025","journal-title":"Ann. Med. Surg."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kustra, A., Maliszewska-Olejniczak, K., Sekrecka-Belniak, A., Kulawiak, B., and Bednarczyk, P. (2025). Polystyrene na-noplastics in human gastrointestinal models\u2014Cellular and molecular mechanisms of toxicity. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 26.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms262311738"},{"key":"ref_77","first-page":"128431","article-title":"Effects of microplastics and nanoplastics on the kidney and cardiovascular system","volume":"430","author":"Lee","year":"2025","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107199","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2022.107199","article-title":"Discovery and quantification of plastic particle pollution in human blood","volume":"163","author":"Leslie","year":"2022","journal-title":"Environ. Int."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zheng, H., Vidili, G., Casu, G., Navarese, E.P., Sechi, L.A., and Chen, Y. (2024). Microplastics and nanoplastics in cardiovascular disease\u2014A narrative review with worrying links. Front. Toxicol., 6.","DOI":"10.3389\/ftox.2024.1479292"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4099","DOI":"10.1093\/eurheartj\/ehae552","article-title":"Micro-nanoplastics and cardiovascular diseases: Evidence and perspectives","volume":"45","author":"Prattichizzo","year":"2024","journal-title":"Eur. Heart J."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"900","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2309822","article-title":"Microplastics and nanoplastics in atheromas and cardiovascular events","volume":"390","author":"Marfella","year":"2024","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137624","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhazmat.2025.137624","article-title":"Microplastics and nanoplastics increase major adverse cardiac events in patients with myocardial infarction","volume":"489","author":"Zhang","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Hazard. Mater."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Song, Z., Wu, H., Fang, X., Feng, X., and Zhou, L. (2024). The cardiovascular toxicity of polystyrene microplastics in rats: Based on untargeted metabolomics analysis. Front. Pharmacol., 15.","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2024.1336369"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Baroni, A., Moulton, C., Cristina, M., Sansone, L., Belli, M., and Tasciotti, E. (2025). Nano- and microplastics in the brain: An emerging threat to neural health. Nanomaterials, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/nano15171361"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1021\/envhealth.5c00087","article-title":"Neurotoxicity of micro- and nanoplastics: A comprehensive review of central nervous system impacts","volume":"4","author":"Ma","year":"2026","journal-title":"Environ. Health"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bhattacharyya, S., Greer, M.L., and Salehi, M. (2025). Impact of micro- and nanoplastics exposure on human health: Focus on neurological effects from ingestion. Front. Public Health, 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2025.1681776"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, S., Wu, J., Wu, M., Qin, Y., Zhu, N., Shen, Y., Chen, R., and Chen, Z. (2025). From environment to brain: The role of microplastics in neurobehavioral disorders. Front. Neurosci., 19.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2025.1691461"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119114","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoenv.2025.119114","article-title":"From exposure to neurotoxicity induced by micro-nanoplastics with brain accumulation and cognitive decline","volume":"304","author":"Gao","year":"2025","journal-title":"Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126416","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2025.126416","article-title":"Microplastic pollution: A review of specific blood-tissue barrier breaches and health effects","volume":"376","author":"Obeng","year":"2025","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shi, X., Wang, Y., and Xu, L. (2025). An overview of research on the association between microplastics and central nervous system disorders. Front. Public Health, 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2025.1629181"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1809","DOI":"10.1039\/D4EN01017E","article-title":"A perspective on the potential impact of microplastics and nanoplastics on the human central nervous system","volume":"12","author":"Moiniafshari","year":"2025","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Nano"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fang, S.-J., Yin, Z.-D., Li, L.-F., Cai, Q., Zheng, P.-F., and Chen, L.-Z. (2025). Overall effects of microplastics on brain. Front. Toxicol., 7.","DOI":"10.3389\/ftox.2025.1619096"},{"key":"ref_93","first-page":"1","article-title":"Neurotoxicity of Microplastics and Nanoplastics in the Human Brain","volume":"17","author":"Qasem","year":"2025","journal-title":"EC Neurol."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1186\/s12989-025-00647-4","article-title":"A systematic review of the potential neurotoxicity of micro- and nanoplastics: The known and unknown","volume":"22","author":"Vojnits","year":"2025","journal-title":"Part. Fibre Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128431","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhazmat.2022.128431","article-title":"Exposure to polystyrene microplastics impairs hippocampus-dependent learning and memory in mice","volume":"430","author":"Lee","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Hazard. Mater."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e70144","DOI":"10.1111\/ene.70144","article-title":"Impact of marine microplastics on neurologic and functional disabilities: A population-level study","volume":"32","author":"Makwana","year":"2025","journal-title":"Eur. J. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.1186\/s12989-020-00358-y","article-title":"The plastic brain: Neurotoxicity of micro- and nanoplastics","volume":"17","author":"Meijer","year":"2020","journal-title":"Part. Fibre Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tins.2026.01.004","article-title":"Micro- and nanoplastics in neurological dysfunction","volume":"49","author":"Gettings","year":"2026","journal-title":"Trends Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118741","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoenv.2025.118741","article-title":"Association between Long-Term Exposure of Polystyrene Microplastics and Exacerbation of Seizure Symptoms: Evidence from Multiple Approaches","volume":"302","author":"Xie","year":"2025","journal-title":"Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2457760","DOI":"10.1080\/26895293.2025.2457760","article-title":"Microplastic exposure and its consequences for renal and urinary health: Systematic review of in vivo studies","volume":"18","author":"Aditya","year":"2025","journal-title":"All. Life"},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1412","DOI":"10.1093\/ndt\/gfag034","article-title":"Effects of micro-plastics and nanoplastics on the kidneys","volume":"41","author":"Augey","year":"2026","journal-title":"Nephrol. Dial. Transplant."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jiang, N., Zheng, X., Zhang, N., and Cao, Y. (2025). The detrimental effects of microplastic exposure on kidney function. Front. Med., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmed.2025.1620733"},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115039","DOI":"10.5527\/wjn.v15.i1.115039","article-title":"Effects of micro and nano plastics on renal health","volume":"15","author":"Demarquoy","year":"2026","journal-title":"World J. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124197","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2026.124197","article-title":"Association of faecal and urinary micro- and nanoplastics with markers of gut integrity and renal function","volume":"298","author":"Calikanzaros","year":"2026","journal-title":"Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"770","DOI":"10.1038\/s41370-024-00709-3","article-title":"Plastic induced urinary tract disease and dysfunction: A scoping review","volume":"35","author":"Olsen","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Expo. Sci. Environ. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19547","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-025-03285-0","article-title":"Network toxicology and bioinformatics analysis reveal the molecular mechanisms of polyethylene terephthalate microplastics in exacerbating diabetic nephropathy","volume":"15","author":"Zeng","year":"2025","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"149","DOI":"10.26444\/monz\/208119","article-title":"A compre-hensive review of the impact of microplastics on the respiratory, digestive and renal systems\u2014Mechanisms of toxicity and health implications","volume":"31","author":"Sagan","year":"2025","journal-title":"Med. Med. Og\u00f3lna Nauk. Zdrowiu"},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Oh, M.Y., Song, G.B., Kim, B., Hong, J., Ju, M., and Hong, S. (2026). Human exposure to micro- and nanoplastics: Routes, accumulation, and health implications. Mol. Cell. Toxicol., in press.","DOI":"10.1007\/s13273-026-00610-0"},{"key":"ref_109","first-page":"381","article-title":"A systematic review on the impact of micro-nanoplastics exposure on human health and diseases","volume":"13","author":"Krishnan","year":"2023","journal-title":"Biointerface Res. Appl. Chem."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"311","DOI":"10.1038\/s43856-026-01675-7","article-title":"Microplastics as both a driver of genitourinary cancers and a deliverer of treatments","volume":"6","author":"Sridharan","year":"2026","journal-title":"Commun. Med."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alex, S.A., George, N.K., Guardiola, J., and Clegg, D. (2025). The threat of micro-\/nanoplastics to male fertility: A review of the data and the importance of future research. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 26.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms262311457"},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118939","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoenv.2025.118939","article-title":"Microplastics and human fertility: A comprehensive review of their presence in human samples and reproductive implication","volume":"303","author":"Doroftei","year":"2025","journal-title":"Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"166258","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2023.166258","article-title":"Adverse effects of microplastics and nanoplastics on the reproductive system: A comprehensive review of fertility and potential harmful interactions","volume":"903","author":"Hong","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3065","DOI":"10.1007\/s10815-025-03566-7","article-title":"Microplastic exposure in-duces epithelial barrier alterations and increases collagen deposition in a 3D human endometrial model in vitro","volume":"42","author":"Arcuri","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Assist. Reprod. Genet."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1186\/s12958-024-01314-7","article-title":"Concerning influences of micro\/nano plastics on female reproduc-tive health: Focusing on cellular and molecular pathways from animal models to human studies","volume":"22","author":"Balali","year":"2024","journal-title":"Reprod. Biol. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101938","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxrep.2025.101938","article-title":"Microplastics: A threat to fetoplacental unit and reproductive systems","volume":"14","author":"Anifowoshe","year":"2025","journal-title":"Toxicol. Rep."},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zurub, R.E., Cariaco, Y., Wade, M.G., and Bainbridge, S.A. (2024). Microplastics exposure: Implications for human fertility, pregnancy and child health. Front. Endocrinol., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2023.1330396"},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108002","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2023.108002","article-title":"Reproductive toxicity of micro- and nanoplastics","volume":"177","author":"Yang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Environ. Int."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117369","DOI":"10.1016\/j.theriogenology.2025.117369","article-title":"Micro-nanoplastics pollution and mammalian fertility: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"238","author":"Volsa","year":"2025","journal-title":"Theriogenology"},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"235","DOI":"10.1093\/toxsci\/kfae060","article-title":"Microplastic presence in dog and human testis and its potential association with sperm count and weights of testis and epididymis","volume":"200","author":"Hu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Toxicol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1430","DOI":"10.1002\/ijgo.70552","article-title":"A review of the impact of micro- and nanoplastics on female reproduction: What we know and gaps in knowledge","volume":"172","author":"Raghuvir","year":"2026","journal-title":"Int. J. Gynecol. Obstet."},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e20230037","DOI":"10.1590\/1984-3143-ar2023-0037","article-title":"The impact of microplastics on female reproduction and early life","volume":"20","author":"Yang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Anim. Reprod."},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Geng, Y., Liu, Z., Hu, R., Huang, Y., Li, F., Ma, W., Wu, X., Dong, H., Song, K., and Xu, X. (2023). Toxicity of microplastics and nanoplastics: Invisible killers of female fertility and offspring health. Front. Physiol., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fphys.2023.1254886"},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109002","DOI":"10.1016\/j.reprotox.2025.109002","article-title":"Unravelling the potential mechanisms of nano- and microplastic toxicity to the male reproductive system: A systematic review","volume":"137","author":"Angelo","year":"2025","journal-title":"Reprod. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102226","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxrep.2026.102226","article-title":"Microplastics and male reproductive system: A comprehensive review based on cellular and molecular effects","volume":"16","author":"Karimian","year":"2026","journal-title":"Toxicol. Rep."},{"key":"ref_126","first-page":"113808","article-title":"Effects of microplastics on the human reproductive system: Current evidence and future perspectives","volume":"214","author":"Marcelino","year":"2022","journal-title":"Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115618","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoenv.2023.115618","article-title":"The male reproductive toxicity after nanoplastics and microplastics exposure: Sperm quality and changes of different cells in testis","volume":"267","author":"Gao","year":"2023","journal-title":"Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf."},{"key":"ref_128","unstructured":"Gholiof, M. (2024). Investigating the Effect of Polystyrene Nanoplastics on Female Reproductive System. [Master\u2019s Thesis, McMaster University]."},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119056","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoenv.2025.119056","article-title":"Placental microplastics contamination and its impact on thyroid function in newborns","volume":"304","author":"Zhang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf."},{"key":"ref_130","unstructured":"James, J. (2025). Microplastics and endocrine disruption during pregnancy: A review. Front. Endocrinol., 16."},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"M\u0142otkowska, P., Osuch, B., Marciniak, E., Zi\u0119ba, D.A., Konopka, A., and Misztal, T. (2026). Effects of microplastics on the central reproductive neuroendocrine system in a sheep model. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 27.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms27052316"},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bossio, S., Ruffolo, S.A., Lofaro, D., Perri, A., and La Russa, M.F. (2025). Endocrine toxicity of micro- and nanoplastics, and advances in detection techniques for human tissues: A comprehensive review. Endocrines, 6.","DOI":"10.3390\/endocrines6020023"},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kovacs, K., Bodis, J., and Vass, R.A. (2025). Microplastics, endocrine disruptors, and oxidative stress: Mechanisms and health implications. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 26.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms27010399"},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118827","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoenv.2025.118827","article-title":"Prenatal microplastic exposure and umbilical cord blood androgenic and glucocorticoid hormones","volume":"303","author":"Liu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf."},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1002\/jat.4915","article-title":"Exploring the impact of microplastics and nanoplastics on macromolecular structure and functions","volume":"46","author":"Marycleopha","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Appl. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tyc, H.J., K\u0142odnicka, K., Teresi\u0144ska, B., Karpi\u0144ski, R., Flieger, J., and Baj, J. (2025). Micro- and nanoplastics as disruptors of the endocrine system\u2014A review of the threats and consequences associated with plastic exposure. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 26.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms26136156"},{"key":"ref_137","unstructured":"Warken, L. (2026). The Physical, Chemical, and Emotional Discourse of Hormonal Disruption by Microplastics and Nanoplastics. [Bachelor\u2019s Thesis, New College of Florida]."},{"key":"ref_138","first-page":"110","article-title":"In silico insights into microplastic additive toxicity: Risks of pulmonary fibrosis and endocrine disruption","volume":"62","author":"Shivangi","year":"2025","journal-title":"Indian J. Biochem. Biophys."},{"key":"ref_139","first-page":"160","article-title":"The impact of microplastics and nanoplastics on human health: A follow-up study focusing on endocrine, nervous, and immune systems","volume":"31","author":"Stoian","year":"2025","journal-title":"Proc. Int. Conf. Knowl.-Based Organ."},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ullah, S., Ahmad, S., Guo, X., Ullah, S., Ullah, S., Nabi, G., and Wanghe, K. (2023). A review of the endocrine disrupting effects of micro and nano plastic and their associated chemicals in mammals. Front. Endocrinol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2022.1084236"},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"645","DOI":"10.1007\/s42452-025-07214-8","article-title":"Mechanistic insight into potential toxic effects of microplastics and nanoplastics on human health","volume":"7","author":"Thapliyal","year":"2025","journal-title":"Discov. Appl. Sci."},{"key":"ref_142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e70393","DOI":"10.1002\/vms3.70393","article-title":"Polystyrene microplastics-induced thyroid dysfunction in mice: A study of gene expression, oxidative stress, and histopathological changes","volume":"11","author":"Islam","year":"2025","journal-title":"Vet. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_143","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"313","DOI":"10.1021\/envhealth.5c00170","article-title":"Microplastics and Nanoplastics Cause Thyroid Dysfunction in Adolescent Mice through the Intestinal Microbiota-Mediated Hypothala-mus-Pituitary-Thyroid Axis","volume":"4","author":"Zhang","year":"2026","journal-title":"Environ. Health"},{"key":"ref_144","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114158","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2020.114158","article-title":"The emerging risk of exposure to nano(micro)plastics on endocrine disturbance and reproductive toxicity: From a hypothetical scenario to a global public health challenge","volume":"261","author":"Amereh","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_145","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137713","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhazmat.2025.137713","article-title":"Exposure of the human placental primary cells to nanoplastics induces cytotoxic effects, an inflammatory response and endocrine disruption","volume":"490","author":"Poinsignon","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Hazard. Mater."},{"key":"ref_146","first-page":"e013551","article-title":"Effect of nano-plastics on different biological systems","volume":"19","author":"Rigo","year":"2025","journal-title":"Rev. Gest. Soc. Ambient."},{"key":"ref_147","first-page":"104564","article-title":"Microplastics and endocrine disruption: Current understanding of molecular mechanisms and health implications","volume":"108","author":"Mishra","year":"2025","journal-title":"Environ. Toxicol. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_148","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ponce-Cusi, R., Barletta-Carrillo, C., and Pilco-Ferreto, N. (2026). Microplastics and Nanoplastics in Cancer Progression: Biology and Public Health. Biomedicines, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/biomedicines14010001"},{"key":"ref_149","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Singh, M., Gupta, S., Pal, J.K., and Sharma, N.K. (2026). Beyond Classic Carcinogens: Micro- and Nanoplastics (MNPs) as Pervasive Factors in Cancer Risk. Int. J. Environ. Med., 1.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijem1020008"},{"key":"ref_150","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102","DOI":"10.4999\/uhod.247607","article-title":"The Relationship Between Microplastics and Nanoplastics with Cancer: An Emerging Health Concern","volume":"34","author":"Yazarkan","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Hematol. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_151","unstructured":"Aguayo Rabadan, M. (2024). Microplastics as Endocrine-Disrupting Pollutants: Mechanisms of Toxicity and Implications for Human Health. [Master\u2019s Thesis, Universitat Rovira i Virgili]."},{"key":"ref_152","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1768","DOI":"10.1039\/D5EM00232J","article-title":"Microscopic menace: Exploring the link between microplastics and cancer pathogenesis","volume":"27","author":"Joseph","year":"2025","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Processes Impacts"},{"key":"ref_153","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sychowski, G., Romanowicz, H., Cie\u015blik-Wolski, B., Wojciechowska-Durczy\u0144ska, K., and Smolarz, B. (2025). Microplastics Exposure Impact on Lung Cancer\u2014Literature Review. Cancers, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/cancers17223616"},{"key":"ref_154","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2723","DOI":"10.1111\/jgh.70075","article-title":"Comparative Analysis of Physical and Polymer Characteristics of Microplastics Detected in Human Colorectal Cancer Samples From the United States and Malaysia","volume":"40","author":"Roslan","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_155","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Baspakova, A., Zare, A., Mussin, N.M., Tanideh, N., Zhilisbayeva, K.R., Safarzoda Sharoffidin, R., Suleimenova, R., Yelgondina, G., Kaliyeva, A.E., and Umbetova, A.A. (2025). In-silico pharmacological insights into the therapeutic potential of microRNAs for microplastic-associated cancers. Front. Cell Dev. Biol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcell.2025.1699693"},{"key":"ref_156","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"196","DOI":"10.30574\/wjbphs.2025.23.3.0823","article-title":"Exposure and inhaling of microplastics: An evidence of cause of cancer","volume":"23","author":"Chalannavar","year":"2025","journal-title":"World J. Biol. Pharm. Health Sci."},{"key":"ref_157","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1186\/s12943-025-02230-z","article-title":"The micro(nano)plastics perspective: Exploring cancer development and therapy","volume":"24","author":"Deng","year":"2025","journal-title":"Mol. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_158","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108453","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mrrev.2023.108453","article-title":"Insights into the potential carcinogenicity of micro- and nano-plastics","volume":"791","author":"Domenech","year":"2023","journal-title":"Mutat. Res. Rev. Mutat. Res."},{"key":"ref_159","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"959","DOI":"10.1186\/s12967-024-05731-5","article-title":"Microplastics: An often-overlooked issue in the transition from chronic inflammation to cancer","volume":"22","author":"Cheng","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_160","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107177","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2022.107177","article-title":"Pulmonary toxicology assessment of polyethylene terephthalate nanoplastic particles in vitro","volume":"162","author":"Zhang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Environ. Int."},{"key":"ref_161","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141463","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2024.141463","article-title":"Microplastics role in cell migration and distribution during cancer cell division","volume":"353","author":"Schogl","year":"2024","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"key":"ref_162","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6252","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-023-33393-8","article-title":"Polypropylene micro-plastics promote metastatic features in human breast cancer","volume":"13","author":"Park","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_163","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103329","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rineng.2024.103329","article-title":"Microplastics and cancer progression: A comparative study of 2D and 3D gastric cancer models using ISO-compliant protocols","volume":"24","author":"Rafazi","year":"2024","journal-title":"Results Eng."},{"key":"ref_164","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e260187","DOI":"10.1530\/EC-26-0187","article-title":"Exploring the relationship between microplastic exposure and bone health","volume":"15","author":"Gogakos","year":"2026","journal-title":"Endocr. Connect."},{"key":"ref_165","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"606793","DOI":"10.2147\/IJN.S606793","article-title":"Environmental micro-nanoplastics and musculoskeletal disorders: Current research and insights","volume":"21","author":"Ju","year":"2026","journal-title":"Int. J. Nanomed."},{"key":"ref_166","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109316","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2025.109316","article-title":"Microplastics in human skeletal tissues: Presence, distribution and health implications","volume":"196","author":"Yang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Environ. Int."},{"key":"ref_167","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhao, H., Mu, S., Wang, W., and Li, X. (2025). Potential threats of environmental microplastics to the skeletal system: Current insights and future directions. Front. Endocrinol., 16.","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2025.1658056"},{"key":"ref_168","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127379","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2025.127379","article-title":"From accumulation to degeneration: Microplastics as emerging risk factors for intervertebral disc health","volume":"388","author":"Sun","year":"2026","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_169","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1061","DOI":"10.1186\/s12967-025-07081-2","article-title":"Microplastics as an emerging driver of osteoarthritis: A translational synthesis of environmental exposure, pathomechanisms, and public health implications","volume":"23","author":"Malik","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_170","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gonzalez Acevedo, M.K., Powers, M., and Cucullo, L. (2026). Oxidative stress, environmental pollutants, aging, and epigenetic regulation: Mechanistic insights and biomarker advances. Antioxidants, 15.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202604.0051.v1"},{"key":"ref_171","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118355","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoenv.2025.118355","article-title":"Maternal exposure to polystyrene nanoplastics during gestation and lactation impaired skeletal growth in progeny mice by inhibiting neutrophil extracellular trap formation","volume":"299","author":"Xiong","year":"2025","journal-title":"Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf."},{"key":"ref_172","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118816","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoenv.2025.118816","article-title":"Unveiling the pathogenic mechanisms of polyethylene terephthalate-microplastic-driven osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis: PTGS2 signaling hub-oriented toxicity profiling","volume":"303","author":"Di","year":"2025","journal-title":"Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf."},{"key":"ref_173","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1007\/s12178-024-09932-9","article-title":"The effects of microplastics on musculo-skeletal disorder: A narrative review","volume":"18","author":"Fusagawa","year":"2025","journal-title":"Curr. Rev. Musculoskelet. Med."},{"key":"ref_174","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"132717","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhazmat.2023.132717","article-title":"Nanoplastic impact on bone microenvironment: A snapshot from murine bone cells","volume":"462","author":"Giannandrea","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Hazard. Mater."},{"key":"ref_175","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fan, Z., Du, H., Zhou, X., Wang, C., Zhang, M., Sun, T., Wang, Y., and Wang, P. (2025). Network toxicology and mo-lecular docking reveal the toxicological mechanisms of DEHP in bone diseases. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 26.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms262210895"},{"key":"ref_176","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114640","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoenv.2023.114640","article-title":"Co-exposure to nanoplastics and acetaminophen causes skeletal dysplasia and behavioral abnormalities in zebrafish","volume":"253","author":"Gao","year":"2023","journal-title":"Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf."},{"key":"ref_177","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117096","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoenv.2024.117096","article-title":"Polystyrene nanoplastics mediate skeletal toxicity through oxidative stress and the BMP pathway in zebrafish (Danio rerio)","volume":"285","author":"Liu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf."}],"container-title":["Molecules"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1420-3049\/31\/17\/2945\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,24]],"date-time":"2026-08-24T09:21:27Z","timestamp":1787563287000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1420-3049\/31\/17\/2945"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,22]]},"references-count":177,"journal-issue":{"issue":"17","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9]]}},"alternative-id":["molecules31172945"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/molecules31172945","relation":{},"ISSN":["1420-3049"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1420-3049","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,22]]}}}