{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,24]],"date-time":"2026-08-24T10:32:04Z","timestamp":1787567524089,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":72,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"17","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,22]],"date-time":"2026-08-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1787356800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"CONCYTEC & PROCIENCIA","award":["E033-2023-01-BM Fase 2"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["E033-2023-01-BM Fase 2"]}]},{"name":"CONCYTEC & PROCIENCIA","award":["E077-2023-01-BM"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["E077-2023-01-BM"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Molecules"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Ka\u00f1iwa (Chenopodium pallidicaule Aellen) is an Andean pseudocereal rich in protein and phenolic compounds, whose bioactive potential under controlled germination remains unexplored through simultaneous metabolite optimization. Germination conditions of ka\u00f1iwa cv. Cupi were optimized using a Central Composite Design (CCD) and the Derringer\u2013Suich desirability function, with time (24\u201396 h) and temperature (18\u201330 \u00b0C) as independent variables, and \u03b3-aminobutyric acid (GABA), total soluble phenolic compounds (TSPC), ORAC, FRAP, and protein content as responses. Five second-order polynomial models yielded adjusted R2 values of 0.703\u20130.880 with non-significant lack of fit (p &gt; 0.050). Germination time was the dominant factor for GABA, TSPC, ORAC, and FRAP, while temperature exerted the predominant negative quadratic effect on protein content. Optimal conditions (96 h, 24 \u00b0C; D = 0.845) produced experimental increases of 1710.30% in GABA (26.12 mg GABA\u00b7100 g\u22121), 117.10% in TSPC (926.9 mg GAE\u00b7100 g\u22121), 261.40% in ORAC (51,756.0 \u00b5mol TE\u00b7100 g\u22121), 244.10% in FRAP (1971.2 \u00b5mol TE\u00b7100 g\u22121), and 42.34% in protein (16.05%) relative to ungerminated seeds. The GABA value constitutes the first report of this non-protein amino acid in germinated ka\u00f1iwa under optimized conditions. Complementary analyses demonstrated that optimized germination markedly increased total reducing sugars and free glucose while decreasing amylolytic and glucoamylase activities and increasing lipase activity, confirming the extensive mobilization of carbohydrate reserves and the metabolic reprogramming associated with the germination process. These findings position ka\u00f1iwa as a high-value functional ingredient for the Andean food industry.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules31172947","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,24]],"date-time":"2026-08-24T09:20:02Z","timestamp":1787563202000},"page":"2947","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Multi-Response Optimization of Controlled Germination Conditions Enhances Functional and Bioactive Properties of Andean Ka\u00f1iwa (Chenopodium pallidicaule Aellen cv. Cupi)"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"31","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9033-9734","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hans Himbler","family":"Minch\u00e1n-Velayarce","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Programa de Doctorado en Ingenier\u00eda Agroindustrial Menci\u00f3n Transformaci\u00f3n Avanzada de Granos y Tub\u00e9rculos Andinos, Universidad Nacional del Santa, Nuevo Chimbote 02712, Peru"},{"name":"Grupo de Investigaci\u00f3n en Compuestos Bioactivos a Partir de Matrices Alimentarias y Biol\u00f3gicas\u2014COMBALBI, Universidad Nacional de Ja\u00e9n, Car. Ja\u00e9n\u2014San Ignacio Km. 24 Sec., Ja\u00e9n 06801, Peru"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Edward Florencio","family":"Aurora-Vigo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Programa de Doctorado en Ingenier\u00eda Agroindustrial Menci\u00f3n Transformaci\u00f3n Avanzada de Granos y Tub\u00e9rculos Andinos, Universidad Nacional del Santa, Nuevo Chimbote 02712, Peru"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-9831-4250","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gabriel J\u00fanio Silva","family":"Souza","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laborat\u00f3rio Integrado de Cereais e Lip\u00eddeos (LICEL), Instituto de Ci\u00eancia e Tecnologia (ICT), Universidade Federal dos Vales do Jequitinhonha e Mucuri (UFVJM), Diamantina 39100-000, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0005-8182-0899","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Suny Chen","family":"Luera-Qui\u00f1ones","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Programa de Doctorado en Ingenier\u00eda Agroindustrial Menci\u00f3n Transformaci\u00f3n Avanzada de Granos y Tub\u00e9rculos Andinos, Universidad Nacional del Santa, Nuevo Chimbote 02712, Peru"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3523-7388","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jorge","family":"Coronado-Olano","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Programa de Doctorado en Ingenier\u00eda Agroindustrial Menci\u00f3n Transformaci\u00f3n Avanzada de Granos y Tub\u00e9rculos Andinos, Universidad Nacional del Santa, Nuevo Chimbote 02712, Peru"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5349-6167","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Luz Mar\u00eda","family":"Paucar-Menacho","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Departamento Acad\u00e9mico de Agroindustria y Agronom\u00eda, Facultad de Ingenier\u00eda, Universidad Nacional del Santa, Chimbote 02712, Peru"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6936-2171","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nath\u00e1lia de Andrade","family":"Neves","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laborat\u00f3rio de Pesquisa em Bioativos de Plantas (FITOLAB), Departamento de Agronomia, Faculdade de Ci\u00eancias Agr\u00e1rias (FCA), Universidade Federal dos Vales do Jequitinhonha e Mucuri (UFVJM), Diamantina 39100-000, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4889-6793","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tarcisio Michael Ferreira Soares de","family":"Oliveira","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laborat\u00f3rio de Micologia, Enzimologia e Desenvolvimento de Produtos (LMEDP), Instituto de Ci\u00eancia e Tecnologia (ICT), Universidade Federal dos Vales do Jequitinhonha e Mucuri (UFVJM), Diamantina 39100-000, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Raniere Ribeiro","family":"Lima","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laborat\u00f3rio de Micologia, Enzimologia e Desenvolvimento de Produtos (LMEDP), Instituto de Ci\u00eancia e Tecnologia (ICT), Universidade Federal dos Vales do Jequitinhonha e Mucuri (UFVJM), Diamantina 39100-000, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6030-0473","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Vivian Machado","family":"Benassi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laborat\u00f3rio de Micologia, Enzimologia e Desenvolvimento de Produtos (LMEDP), Instituto de Ci\u00eancia e Tecnologia (ICT), Universidade Federal dos Vales do Jequitinhonha e Mucuri (UFVJM), Diamantina 39100-000, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0980-9474","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Julio","family":"Vidaurre-Ruiz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centro de Investigaci\u00f3n e Innovaci\u00f3n en Productos Derivados de Cultivos Andinos CIINCA, Universidad Nacional Agraria La Molina, Lima 15024, Peru"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8830-1710","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marcio","family":"Schmiele","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Grupo de Investigaci\u00f3n en Compuestos Bioactivos a Partir de Matrices Alimentarias y Biol\u00f3gicas\u2014COMBALBI, Universidad Nacional de Ja\u00e9n, Car. Ja\u00e9n\u2014San Ignacio Km. 24 Sec., Ja\u00e9n 06801, Peru"},{"name":"Laborat\u00f3rio Integrado de Cereais e Lip\u00eddeos (LICEL), Instituto de Ci\u00eancia e Tecnologia (ICT), Universidade Federal dos Vales do Jequitinhonha e Mucuri (UFVJM), Diamantina 39100-000, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,22]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"410","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcs.2012.04.013","article-title":"Effect of Germination on Total Phenolic Compounds, Total Antioxidant Capacity, Maillard Reaction Products and Oxidative Stress Markers in Canihua (Chenopodium pallidicaule)","volume":"56","author":"Abderrahim","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Cereal Sci."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117564","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lwt.2025.117564","article-title":"Enhancing the Functional Value of Andean Food Plants: Enzymatic Production of \u03b3-Aminobutyric Acid from Tarwi, Ca\u00f1ihua and Quinoa Real Seeds\u2019 Proteins","volume":"220","author":"Ibieta","year":"2025","journal-title":"LWT"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e34589","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2024.e34589","article-title":"Ka\u00f1ihua (Chenopodium Pallidicaule Aellen), an Ancestral Inca Seed and Optimal Functional Food and Nutraceutical for the Industry: Review","volume":"10","author":"Mujica","year":"2024","journal-title":"Heliyon"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1081\/FRI-120018884","article-title":"Nutritional Value and Use of the Andean Crops Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa) and Ka\u00f1iwa (Chenopodium pallidicaule)","volume":"19","author":"Espinoza","year":"2003","journal-title":"Food Rev. Int."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"875","DOI":"10.1038\/nprot.2007.102","article-title":"Estimation of Total Phenolic Content and Other Oxidation Substrates in Plant Tissues Using Folin\u2013Ciocalteu Reagent","volume":"2","author":"Ainsworth","year":"2007","journal-title":"Nat. Protoc."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"635","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2019.03.092","article-title":"iTRAQ-Based Proteomic Analysis Reveals the Accumulation of Bioactive Compounds in Chinese Wild Rice (Zizania latifolia) during Germination","volume":"289","author":"Chu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jiang, X., Xu, Q., Zhang, A., Liu, Y., Zhao, L., Gu, L., Yuan, J., Jia, H., Shen, X., and Li, Z. (2021). Optimization of \u03b3-Aminobutyric Acid (GABA) Accumulation in Germinating Adzuki Beans (Vigna angularis) by Vacuum Treatment and Monosodium Glutamate, and the Molecular Mechanisms. Front. Nutr., 8.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnut.2021.693862"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"138693","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2024.138693","article-title":"Change of Physiochemical Characteristics, Nutritional Quality, and Volatile Compounds of Chenopodium quinoa Willd. during Germination","volume":"445","author":"Lan","year":"2024","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"236","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lwt.2016.07.064","article-title":"Optimization of Germination Time and Temperature to Maximize the Content of Bioactive Compounds and the Antioxidant Activity of Purple Corn (Zea mays L.) by Response Surface Methodology","volume":"76","author":"Frias","year":"2017","journal-title":"LWT-Food Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102996","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcs.2020.102996","article-title":"Effects of Germination and Kilning on the Phenolic Compounds and Nutritional Properties of Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa) and Kiwicha (Amaranthus caudatus)","volume":"94","author":"Tian","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Cereal Sci."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e70103","DOI":"10.1002\/fsn3.70103","article-title":"The Effect of Germination on Antinutritional Components, In Vitro Starch and Protein Digestibility, Content, and Bioaccessibility of Phenolics and Antioxidants of Some Pulses","volume":"13","author":"Polat","year":"2025","journal-title":"Food Sci. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106239","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ultsonch.2022.106239","article-title":"Combined Transcriptome and Metabolome Analyses Reveal the Mechanisms of Ultrasonication Improvement of Brown Rice Germination","volume":"91","author":"Zhang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Ultrason. Sonochem."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5583","DOI":"10.1080\/87559129.2022.2083158","article-title":"Sprouted Andean Grains: An Alternative for the Development of Nutritious and Functional Products","volume":"39","author":"Cabezas","year":"2023","journal-title":"Food Rev. Int."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"516","DOI":"10.1111\/ijfs.13623","article-title":"Response Surface Optimisation of Germination Conditions to Improve the Accumulation of Bioactive Compounds and the Antioxidant Activity in Quinoa","volume":"53","author":"Frias","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Food Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"196","DOI":"10.1007\/s11130-014-0430-0","article-title":"Increasing the Antioxidant Activity, Total Phenolic and Flavonoid Contents by Optimizing the Germination Conditions of Amaranth Seeds","volume":"69","year":"2014","journal-title":"Plant Foods Hum. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ramos-Pacheco, B.S., Choque-Quispe, D., Ligarda-Samanez, C.A., Solano-Reynoso, A.M., Palomino-Rinc\u00f3n, H., Choque-Quispe, Y., Peralta-Guevara, D.E., Moscoso-Moscoso, E., and Aiquipa-Pillaca, \u00c1.S. (2024). Effect of Germination on the Physicochemical Properties, Functional Groups, Content of Bioactive Compounds, and Antioxidant Capacity of Different Varieties of Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) Grown in the High Andean Zone of Peru. Foods, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/foods13030417"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107268","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodhyd.2021.107268","article-title":"Impact of Germination on Nutraceutical, Functional and Gluten Free Muffin Making Properties of Tartary Buckwheat (Fagopyrum tataricum)","volume":"124","author":"Bhinder","year":"2022","journal-title":"Food Hydrocoll."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Paucar-Menacho, L., Simpalo-L\u00f3pez, W., Castillo-Mart\u00ednez, W., Esquivel-Paredes, L., and Mart\u00ednez-Villaluenga, C. (2022). Reformulating Bread Using Sprouted Pseudo-Cereal Grains to Enhance Its Nutritional Value and Sensorial Attributes. Foods, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/foods11111541"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2101","DOI":"10.1002\/fsn3.2826","article-title":"Optimization of Germination and Ultrasonic-assisted Extraction for the Enhancement of \u03b3-aminobutyric Acid in Pumpkin Seed","volume":"10","author":"Liang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Food Sci. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Paucar-Menacho, L., Schmiele, M., Lavado-Cruz, A., Verona-Ruiz, A., Moll\u00e1, C., Pe\u00f1as, E., Frias, J., Simpalo-Lopez, W., Castillo-Mart\u00ednez, W., and Mart\u00ednez-Villaluenga, C. (2022). Andean Sprouted Pseudocereals to Produce Healthier Extrudates: Impact in Nutritional and Physicochemical Properties. Foods, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/foods11203259"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yu, S., Li, C., Wang, X., Herrera-Balandrano, D.D., Johnson, J.B., and Xiang, J. (2024). Optimization of Germination Conditions for Enriched \u03b3-Aminobutyric Acid and Phenolic Compounds of Foxtail Millet Sprouts by Response Surface Methodology. Foods, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/foods13203340"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1947","DOI":"10.63369\/ijat.2025.21.5.1947-1960","article-title":"Enhancing Bioactive Compounds and Antioxidant Properties: Role of Germination in Rice","volume":"21","author":"Preecharram","year":"2025","journal-title":"Int. J. Agric. Technol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"245","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lwt.2016.07.038","article-title":"Optimizing Germination Conditions to Enhance the Accumulation of Bioactive Compounds and the Antioxidant Activity of Kiwicha (Amaranthus caudatus) Using Response Surface Methodology","volume":"76","author":"Frias","year":"2017","journal-title":"LWT-Food Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104196","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fbio.2024.104196","article-title":"A Multi-Omics Study Revealed the Effect of Pulsed Light Treatment on Germinated Brown Rice: Promotion of Sprouting Efficiency and Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid Enrichment","volume":"61","author":"Zhang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Food Biosci."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"551","DOI":"10.1007\/s11130-024-01209-3","article-title":"Andean Crops Germination: Changes in the Nutritional Profile, Physical and Sensory Characteristics. A Review","volume":"79","author":"Lobo","year":"2024","journal-title":"Plant Foods Hum. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"610","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ifset.2009.03.003","article-title":"Extraction Optimization of Bioactive Compounds (Crocin, Geniposide and Total Phenolic Compounds) from Gardenia (Gardenia jasminoides Ellis) Fruits with Response Surface Methodology","volume":"10","author":"Yang","year":"2009","journal-title":"Innov. Food Sci. Emerg. Technol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"636","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2009.07.011","article-title":"Optimisation of Germination Time and Temperature on the Concentration of Bioactive Compounds in Brazilian Soybean Cultivar BRS 133 Using Response Surface Methodology","volume":"119","author":"Berhow","year":"2010","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, R., Wang, C., Wang, Y., Xie, X., Sui, W., Liu, R., Wu, T., and Zhang, M. (2023). Extrusion Modification of Wheat Bran and Its Effects on Structural and Rheological Properties of Wheat Flour Dough. Foods, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/foods12091813"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"619","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcs.2008.01.008","article-title":"Optimization of Germination Conditions to Enhance Hydroxyl Radical Inhibition by Water-Soluble Protein from Stress Millet","volume":"48","author":"Li","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Cereal Sci."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"Myers, R.H., Montgomery, D.C., and Anderson-Cook, C.M. (2016). Response Surface Methodology: Process and Product Optimization Using Designed Experiments, Wiley. [4th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"407","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2013.11.156","article-title":"Maximising the Phytochemical Content and Antioxidant Activity of Ecuadorian Brown Rice Sprouts through Optimal Germination Conditions","volume":"152","author":"Amigo","year":"2014","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lima, C.T., Santos, T.M.D., Neves, N.D.A., Lavado-Cruz, A., Paucar-Menacho, L.M., Clerici, M.T.P.S., Meza, S.L.R., and Schmiele, M. (2023). New Breakfast Cereal Developed with Sprouted Whole Ryegrass Flour: Evaluation of Technological and Nutritional Parameters. Foods, 12.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202309.0957.v1"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Minch\u00e1n-Velayarce, H., Aurora-Vigo, E.F., Luera-Qui\u00f1ones, S., Coronado-Olano, J., Neves, N.A., Paucar-Menacho, L.M., Vidaurre-Ruiz, J.M., and Schmiele, M. (2026). Optimizaci\u00f3n de La Extracci\u00f3n de Polifenoles Totales de Ka\u00f1iwa (Chenopodium pallidicaule) Mediante Dise\u00f1o de Mezclas Simplex Lattice. Anais do V Simp\u00f3sio de Ci\u00eancia e Tecnologia de Alimentos (SICITAL), Even3.","DOI":"10.29327\/9786527225539.1545313"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1372","DOI":"10.5740\/jaoacint.13-175","article-title":"Determination of Total Antioxidant Capacity by Oxygen Radical Absorbance Capacity (ORAC) Using Fluorescein as the Fluorescence Probe: First Action 2012.23","volume":"96","author":"Ou","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. AOAC Int."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"70","DOI":"10.1006\/abio.1996.0292","article-title":"The Ferric Reducing Ability of Plasma (FRAP) as a Measure of \u201cAntioxidant Power\u201d: The FRAP Assay","volume":"239","author":"Benzie","year":"1996","journal-title":"Anal. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"AOAC (2023). AOAC Official Method 990.03: Protein (Crude) in Animal Feed: Combustion Method. Official Methods of Analysis of AOAC INTERNATIONAL, Oxford University Press."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"214","DOI":"10.1080\/00224065.1980.11980968","article-title":"Simultaneous Optimization of Several Response Variables","volume":"12","author":"Derringer","year":"1980","journal-title":"J. Qual. Technol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huaman-Huaman, D., Chavez, S.G., Mena-Chacon, L., Marcelo-Pe\u00f1a, J., Minch\u00e1n-Velayarce, H., and Rivera-Botonares, R. (2026). Characterization and Optimization of the Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction Process of an Unexplored Amazonian Drupe (Chondrodendron tomentosum): A Novel Source of Anthocyanins and Phenolic Compounds. Processes, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/pr14020357"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104200","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcs.2025.104200","article-title":"Optimization of Polysaccharide Extraction from Foxtail Millet Husk and Characterization of Its Structure and Antioxidant Activity","volume":"124","author":"Xu","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Cereal Sci."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"426","DOI":"10.1021\/ac60147a030","article-title":"Use of Dinitrosalicylic Acid Reagent for Determination of Reducing Sugar","volume":"31","author":"Miller","year":"1959","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_41","first-page":"1205","article-title":"Determination of D-Glucose with Glucose Oxidase and Peroxidase","volume":"Volume 3","author":"Bergmeyer","year":"1974","journal-title":"Methods of Enzymatic Analysis"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"417","DOI":"10.1016\/0141-0229(95)00120-4","article-title":"Hydrolysis of P-Nitrophenyl Palmitate in n-Heptane by the Pseudomonas Cepacia Lipase: A Simple Test for the Determination of Lipase Activity in Organic Media","volume":"18","author":"Baratti","year":"1996","journal-title":"Enzym. Microb. Technol."},{"key":"ref_43","first-page":"20","article-title":"Protease Production by Bacillus subtilis Immobilized on Different Matrices","volume":"3","author":"Kumar","year":"2010","journal-title":"N. Y. Sci. J."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e9039","DOI":"10.18265\/2447-9187a2025id9039","article-title":"Otimiza\u00e7\u00e3o Da Produ\u00e7\u00e3o de Extrato de Kiwi: Avalia\u00e7\u00e3o Das Condi\u00e7\u00f5es Ideais de pH e Temperatura Para Aplica\u00e7\u00e3o Como Coagulante Vegetal","volume":"62","author":"Batista","year":"2025","journal-title":"Rev. Principia"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"256","DOI":"10.1007\/s11694-016-9392-2","article-title":"Analyzing the Effect of Optimization Conditions of Germination on the Antioxidant Activity, Total Phenolics, and Antinutritional Factors of Chenopodium (Chenopodium album)","volume":"11","author":"Jan","year":"2017","journal-title":"Food Meas."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Minch\u00e1n-Velayarce, H.H., Bustos, A.-S., Paucar-Menacho, L.M., Vidaurre-Ruiz, J., and Schmiele, M. (2025). New Frontiers in Cereal and Pseudocereal Germination: Emerging Inducers for Maximizing Bioactive Compounds. Foods, 14.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202507.1915.v1"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nascimento, G.K.S.D., Silva, M.S., Andressa, I., Fagundes, M.B., Vendruscolo, R.G., Oliveira, J.R., Barcia, M.T., Benassi, V.M., Neves, N.D.A., and Lima, C.T. (2024). A New Advancement in Germination Biotechnology of Purple Creole Corn: Bioactive Compounds and In Situ Enzyme Activity for Water-Soluble Extract and Pan Bread. Metabolites, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/metabo14010035"},{"key":"ref_48","first-page":"1936516","article-title":"Hydrogen Peroxide Treatment and the Phenylpropanoid Pathway Precursors Feeding Improve Phenolics and Antioxidant Capacity of Quinoa Sprouts via an Induction of L-Tyrosine and L-Phenylalanine Ammonia-Lyases Activities","volume":"2016","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Chem."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Csepregi, K., Neugart, S., Schreiner, M., and Hideg, \u00c9. (2016). Comparative Evaluation of Total Antioxidant Capacities of Plant Polyphenols. Molecules, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules21020208"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4026","DOI":"10.1021\/jf049696w","article-title":"Lipophilic and Hydrophilic Antioxidant Capacities of Common Foods in the United States","volume":"52","author":"Wu","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Agric. Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"175","DOI":"10.1007\/s40011-016-0744-9","article-title":"Impact of Germination Time and Temperature on Phenolics, Bioactive Compounds and Antioxidant Activity of Different Coloured Soybean","volume":"88","author":"Miglani","year":"2018","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. India Sect. B Biol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107337","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ultsonch.2025.107337","article-title":"Drying Kinetics and Thermodynamic Analysis; Enhancing Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) Quality Profile via Pre-Treatments Assisted Germination and Processing","volume":"117","author":"Khan","year":"2025","journal-title":"Ultrason. Sonochem."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1007\/s11130-026-01474-4","article-title":"Ka\u00f1iwa, an Emerging Andean Grain: Nutritional Profile, Processing Technologies, Food Applications, Challenges and Opportunities for the Food Industry","volume":"81","author":"Cabezas","year":"2026","journal-title":"Plant Foods Hum. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"387","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.arplant.59.032607.092740","article-title":"Molecular Aspects of Seed Dormancy","volume":"59","author":"Finkelstein","year":"2008","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Plant Biol."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tuan, P.A., Kumar, R., Rehal, P.K., Toora, P.K., and Ayele, B.T. (2018). Molecular Mechanisms Underlying Abscisic Acid\/Gibberellin Balance in the Control of Seed Dormancy and Germination in Cereals. Front. Plant Sci., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpls.2018.00668"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1358","DOI":"10.1093\/plcell\/koad328","article-title":"A Commitment for Life: Decades of Unraveling the Molecular Mechanisms behind Seed Dormancy and Germination","volume":"36","author":"Sajeev","year":"2024","journal-title":"Plant Cell"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhao, W., Wei, Z., Chen, H., Zhang, J., Duan, H., and Jin, L. (2025). Combined Transcriptomic and Metabolomic Analysis of the Molecular Mechanism of Seed Dormancy Release in Notopterygium incisum. BMC Genom., 26.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12864-025-12021-x"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rayee, R., Anh, L.H., and Xuan, T.D. (2024). Effects of Abscisic Acid on Rice Seed Dormancy: Antioxidant Response and Accumulations of Melatonin, Phenolics and Momilactones. Agriculture, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/agriculture14081229"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sedl\u00e1kov\u00e1, V., Zeljkovi\u0107, S.\u0106., \u0160tefelov\u00e1, N., Sm\u00fdkal, P., and Han\u00e1\u010dek, P. (2023). Phenylpropanoid Content of Chickpea Seed Coats in Relation to Seed Dormancy. Plants, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/plants12142687"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, X., Zong, N., Wang, X., Niu, J., Zhang, X., Shu, K., Wang, G., and Hui, W. (2025). Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid (GABA) Releases Seed Dormancy by Orchestrating Abscisic Acid and Gibberellin Metabolism and Signaling. BMC Plant Biol., 25.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12870-025-06707-3"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"980","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-3040.2011.02298.x","article-title":"Crosstalk between Reactive Oxygen Species and Hormonal Signalling Pathways Regulates Grain Dormancy in Barley","volume":"34","author":"Bahin","year":"2011","journal-title":"Plant Cell Environ."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1259","DOI":"10.1080\/87559129.2024.2430652","article-title":"Regulatory Role and Mechanisms of Reactive Oxygen Species in Grains During Post-Harvest Storage: The Vanguard Sentinel of Quality Deterioration","volume":"41","author":"Zhang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Food Rev. Int."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Loades, E., P\u00e9rez, M., Ture\u010dkov\u00e1, V., Tarkowsk\u00e1, D., Strnad, M., Seville, A., Nakabayashi, K., and Leubner-Metzger, G. (2023). Distinct Hormonal and Morphological Control of Dormancy and Germination in Chenopodium Album Dimorphic Seeds. Front. Plant Sci., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpls.2023.1156794"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, X., Wang, X., Li, A., Luo, O., Sun, Y., and Wu, X. (2026). Integrating Transcriptomic, Physiological, and Biochemical Studies Revealing the Role of Endogenous ABA and GA3 in the Germination of Quinoa Seed. Front. Plant Sci., 17.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpls.2026.1722072"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1080\/87559129.2018.1514623","article-title":"Enzyme Activity during Germination of Different Cereals: A Review","volume":"35","year":"2019","journal-title":"Food Rev. Int."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106821","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ultsonch.2024.106821","article-title":"Ultrasonic Seed Treatment Improved Seed Germination, Growth, and Yield of Rice by Modulating Associated Physio-Biochemical Mechanisms","volume":"104","author":"Huang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Ultrason. Sonochem."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Salato, R.E., Carvalho, H.J.M., Melo, J.D.O., and Schmiele, M. (2026). Germination-Driven Modulation of Phenolic Compounds in Sorghum: Bioactivity and Gene Expression. Foods, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/foods15061022"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1049","DOI":"10.1007\/s00449-025-03164-y","article-title":"Plants Lipases: Challenges, Recent Advances, and Future Prospects\u2014A Review","volume":"48","author":"Cansian","year":"2025","journal-title":"Bioprocess. Biosyst. Eng."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"915","DOI":"10.1002\/jsfa.4265","article-title":"A Preliminary Study of the Protease Activities in Germinating Brown Rice (Oryza sativa L.)","volume":"91","author":"Li","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Sci. Food Agric."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"423","DOI":"10.1094\/CCHEM.2002.79.3.423","article-title":"Proteolytic Enzymes in Germinating Rye Grains","volume":"79","author":"Brijs","year":"2002","journal-title":"Cereal Chem."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jplph.2016.09.008","article-title":"The Roles of Cysteine Proteases and Phytocystatins in Development and Germination of Cereal Seeds","volume":"207","author":"Bielawski","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Plant Physiol."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Escand\u00f3n, M., Bigatton, E.D., Guerrero-S\u00e1nchez, V.M., Hern\u00e1ndez-Lao, T., Rey, M.-D., Jorr\u00edn-Novo, J.V., and Castillejo, M.A. (2022). Identification of Proteases and Protease Inhibitors in Seeds of the Recalcitrant Forest Tree Species Quercus ilex. Front. Plant Sci., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpls.2022.907042"}],"container-title":["Molecules"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1420-3049\/31\/17\/2947\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,24]],"date-time":"2026-08-24T09:21:48Z","timestamp":1787563308000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1420-3049\/31\/17\/2947"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,22]]},"references-count":72,"journal-issue":{"issue":"17","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9]]}},"alternative-id":["molecules31172947"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/molecules31172947","relation":{},"ISSN":["1420-3049"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1420-3049","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,22]]}}}