{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,2]],"date-time":"2026-09-02T15:15:28Z","timestamp":1788362128856,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":130,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"17","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,2]],"date-time":"2026-09-02T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1788307200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003725","name":"National Research Foundation of Korea","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["RS-2024-00415982"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["RS-2024-00415982"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003725","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003725","name":"National Research Foundation of Korea","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["RS-2025-23525049"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["RS-2025-23525049"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003725","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003725","name":"National Research Foundation of Korea","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["RS-2025-25460008"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["RS-2025-25460008"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003725","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["RS-2024-00415982"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["RS-2024-00415982"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/013aysd81","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["RS-2025-23525049"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["RS-2025-23525049"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/013aysd81","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["RS-2025-25460008"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["RS-2025-25460008"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/013aysd81","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003661","name":"Korea Institute for Advancement of Technology","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["P241200036"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["P241200036"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003661","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["P241200036"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["P241200036"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/015w1qa96","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Molecules"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Bioadhesive hydrogels combine tissue-adhesive properties with therapeutic multifunctionality, offering promising solutions for regenerative medicine. This comprehensive review examines the design strategies, fundamental adhesion mechanisms, and clinical applications of these biomaterials. We systematically discuss four primary adhesion mechanisms: physical interactions, chemical adhesion, topological mechanical interlocking, and bioinspired adhesion. Key design parameters, including wet-environment adhesion strength, self-healing capability, injectability, and controlled biodegradability, are analyzed and benchmarked against commercial products. Major material platforms, encompassing catechol-based systems, chitosan derivatives, gelatin\/GelMA variants, Polyethylene glycol (PEG)-based adhesives, and multi-network hybrid systems, are evaluated for their adhesive performance and functional integration. Tissue-specific applications spanning wound healing, bone\/cartilage repair, soft tissue sealing, vascular repair, and neural regeneration are critically assessed, emphasizing in vivo outcomes and clinical translation barriers. Finally, we discuss emerging frontiers, including artificial intelligence-guided material design, on-demand detachable adhesives, and regulatory pathways. Synthesizing over 140 peer-reviewed references from the past two decades, this review provides a systematic roadmap from fundamental adhesion science toward the clinical implementation of next-generation bioadhesive hydrogels.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules31173085","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,2]],"date-time":"2026-09-02T14:35:29Z","timestamp":1788359729000},"page":"3085","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Bioadhesive Hydrogels for Tissue Repair: Design Strategies, Adhesion Mechanisms, and Emerging Applications"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"31","author":[{"given":"Seoha","family":"Kim","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Engineering, Dongguk University, Seoul 04620, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hyejin","family":"Jo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Engineering, Dongguk University, Seoul 04620, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9654-8577","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Seunghun S.","family":"Lee","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Engineering, Dongguk University, Seoul 04620, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,2]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"203943","article-title":"Fibrin sealant: The only approved hemostat, sealant, and adhesive\u2014A laboratory and clinical perspective","volume":"2014","author":"Spotnitz","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. Sch. Res. Not."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1820","DOI":"10.1039\/C4CS00332B","article-title":"The chemistry and engineering of polymeric hydrogel adhesives for wound closure: A tutorial","volume":"44","author":"Ghobril","year":"2015","journal-title":"Chem. Soc. Rev."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"271","DOI":"10.1002\/mabi.201200332","article-title":"Design strategies and applications of tissue bioadhesives","volume":"13","author":"Mehdizadeh","year":"2013","journal-title":"Macromol. Biosci."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.201303233","article-title":"25th anniversary article: Rational design and applications of hydrogels in regenerative medicine","volume":"26","author":"Annabi","year":"2014","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7642","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.chemrev.0c00345","article-title":"Hydrogels and hydrogel-derived materials for energy and water sustainability","volume":"120","author":"Guo","year":"2020","journal-title":"Chem. Rev."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"378","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aah6362","article-title":"Tough adhesives for diverse wet surfaces","volume":"357","author":"Li","year":"2017","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-019-1710-5","article-title":"Dry double-sided tape for adhesion of wet tissues and devices","volume":"575","author":"Yuk","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"229","DOI":"10.1038\/s41563-020-00814-2","article-title":"Electrical bioadhesive interface for bioelectronics","volume":"20","author":"Deng","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Mater."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12687","DOI":"10.1021\/acsnano.1c04206","article-title":"Functional hydrogels as wound dressing to enhance wound healing","volume":"15","author":"Liang","year":"2021","journal-title":"ACS Nano"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101049","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nantod.2020.101049","article-title":"Tissue adhesives: From research to clinical translation","volume":"36","author":"Cecen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nano Today"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e10680","DOI":"10.1002\/btm2.10680","article-title":"Hydrogels in the clinic: An update","volume":"9","author":"Clegg","year":"2024","journal-title":"Bioeng. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eaaw3963","DOI":"10.1126\/sciadv.aaw3963","article-title":"Bioinspired mechanically active adhesive dressings to accelerate wound closure","volume":"5","author":"Blacklow","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Adv."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-025-09269-4","article-title":"Data-driven de novo design of super-adhesive hydrogels","volume":"644","author":"Liao","year":"2025","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1134","DOI":"10.1021\/acsabm.8b00349","article-title":"Self-Healing and Adhesive Artificial Tissue Implant for Voice Recovery","volume":"1","author":"Lee","year":"2018","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Bio Mater."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1039\/D0MH01317J","article-title":"Polyphenol scaffolds in tissue engineering","volume":"8","author":"Zhang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mater. Horiz."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11336","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.chemrev.0c00798","article-title":"Polymeric tissue adhesives","volume":"121","author":"Nam","year":"2021","journal-title":"Chem. Rev."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5604","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.chemrev.1c00815","article-title":"Supramolecular adhesive hydrogels for tissue engineering applications","volume":"122","author":"Zhao","year":"2022","journal-title":"Chem. Rev."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1872","DOI":"10.1039\/D0MH00361A","article-title":"Stretchable, self-healing and tissue-adhesive zwitterionic hydrogels as strain sensors for wireless monitoring of organ motions","volume":"7","author":"Pei","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mater. Horiz."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4048","DOI":"10.1021\/acsbiomaterials.0c01677","article-title":"Engineering hydrogel adhesion for biomedical applications via chemical design of the junction","volume":"7","author":"Bovone","year":"2021","journal-title":"ACS Biomater. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eadh4327","DOI":"10.1126\/sciadv.adh4327","article-title":"Injectable, self-healing hydrogel adhesives with firm tissue adhesion and on-demand biodegradation for sutureless wound closure","volume":"9","author":"Ren","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sci. Adv."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2003","DOI":"10.1039\/c2cs15305j","article-title":"Dynamic imine chemistry","volume":"41","author":"Belowich","year":"2012","journal-title":"Chem. Soc. Rev."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xu, J., Liu, Y., and Hsu, S.-h. (2019). Hydrogels based on Schiff base linkages for biomedical applications. Molecules, 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules24163005"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122173","DOI":"10.1016\/j.carbpol.2024.122173","article-title":"Schiff base crosslinked hyaluronic acid hydrogels with tunable and cell instructive time-dependent mechanical properties","volume":"338","author":"Kohlan","year":"2024","journal-title":"Carbohydr. Polym."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"724","DOI":"10.1021\/cm402180t","article-title":"The thiol-Michael addition click reaction: A powerful and widely used tool in materials chemistry","volume":"26","author":"Nair","year":"2014","journal-title":"Chem. Mater."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"nwae160","DOI":"10.1093\/nsr\/nwae160","article-title":"A low-swelling hydrogel as a multirole sealant for efficient dural defect sealing and prevention of postoperative adhesion","volume":"11","author":"Cheng","year":"2024","journal-title":"Natl. Sci. Rev."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"824","DOI":"10.1021\/bm101446k","article-title":"Diels\u2212Alder click cross-linked hyaluronic acid hydrogels for tissue engineering","volume":"12","author":"Nimmo","year":"2011","journal-title":"Biomacromolecules"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3581","DOI":"10.1021\/bm4009606","article-title":"In situ cross-linkable hydrogel of hyaluronan produced via copper-free click chemistry","volume":"14","author":"Takahashi","year":"2013","journal-title":"Biomacromolecules"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"935","DOI":"10.1038\/s41578-022-00483-4","article-title":"Hydrogel interfaces for merging humans and machines","volume":"7","author":"Yuk","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Mater."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2103457118","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2103457118","article-title":"Hydrogel\u2013mesh composite for wound closure","volume":"118","author":"Gao","year":"2021","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2402282","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.202402282","article-title":"Toughening hydrogels with fibrillar connected double networks","volume":"36","author":"Fang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"517","DOI":"10.1242\/jeb.134056","article-title":"Mussel adhesion\u2013essential footwork","volume":"220","author":"Waite","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Exp. Biol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12999","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0605552103","article-title":"Single-molecule mechanics of mussel adhesion","volume":"103","author":"Lee","year":"2006","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-matsci-062910-100429","article-title":"Mussel-inspired adhesives and coatings","volume":"41","author":"Lee","year":"2011","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Mater. Res."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"426","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1147241","article-title":"Mussel-inspired surface chemistry for multifunctional coatings","volume":"318","author":"Lee","year":"2007","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3814","DOI":"10.1002\/adfm.201500006","article-title":"Tissue adhesive catechol-modified hyaluronic acid hydrogel for effective, minimally invasive cell therapy","volume":"25","author":"Shin","year":"2015","journal-title":"Adv. Funct. Mater."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actbio.2018.03.008","article-title":"Development of tannin-inspired antimicrobial bioadhesives","volume":"72","author":"Guo","year":"2018","journal-title":"Acta Biomater."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1270","DOI":"10.1002\/adfm.201403992","article-title":"DNA\/Tannic Acid Hybrid Gel Exhibiting Biodegradability, Extensibility, Tissue Adhesiveness, and Hemostatic Ability","volume":"25","author":"Shin","year":"2015","journal-title":"Adv. Funct. Mater."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2301913","DOI":"10.1002\/adhm.202301913","article-title":"Tough and on-demand detachable wet tissue adhesive hydrogel made from catechol derivatives with a long aliphatic side chain","volume":"12","author":"Chen","year":"2023","journal-title":"Adv. Healthc. Mater."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6668","DOI":"10.1021\/acsomega.7b01067","article-title":"Tannic acid-based multifunctional hydrogels with facile adjustable adhesion and cohesion contributed by polyphenol supramolecular chemistry","volume":"2","author":"Fan","year":"2017","journal-title":"ACS Omega"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12252","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.192252799","article-title":"Evidence for van der Waals adhesion in gecko setae","volume":"99","author":"Autumn","year":"2002","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1186\/s42825-025-00227-4","article-title":"Tannic acid as a bioactive polyphenol for hydrogel engineering in wound healing","volume":"8","author":"Bei","year":"2026","journal-title":"Collagen Leather"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2402","DOI":"10.1002\/adfm.201500034","article-title":"TAPE: A Medical Adhesive Inspired by a Ubiquitous Compound in Plants","volume":"25","author":"Kim","year":"2015","journal-title":"Adv. Funct. Mater."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20160462","DOI":"10.1098\/rsif.2016.0462","article-title":"The role of amino acids in hydroxyapatite mineralization","volume":"13","author":"Tavafoghi","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. R. Soc. Interface"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2651","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1015862108","article-title":"pH-induced metal-ligand cross-links inspired by mussel yield self-healing polymer networks with near-covalent elastic moduli","volume":"108","author":"Harrington","year":"2011","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"757","DOI":"10.1002\/polb.22256","article-title":"Natural underwater adhesives","volume":"49","author":"Stewart","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Polym. Sci. Part B Polym. Phys."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2502850","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.202502850","article-title":"Biomimetic 3D-Printed Adaptive Hydrogel Bioadhesives Featuring Superior Infection Resistance for Challenging Tissue Adhesion, Hemostasis, and Healthcare","volume":"37","author":"Wu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2400835","DOI":"10.1002\/marc.202400835","article-title":"Adhesive and Conductive Hydrogels for the Treatment of Myocardial Infarction","volume":"46","author":"Zhao","year":"2025","journal-title":"Macromol. Rapid Commun."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e70181","DOI":"10.1002\/mco2.70181","article-title":"Self-Healing Hydrogels: Mechanisms and Biomedical Applications","volume":"6","author":"Xue","year":"2025","journal-title":"MedComm"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1487","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-019-09351-2","article-title":"Plant-inspired adhesive and tough hydrogel based on Ag-Lignin nanoparticles-triggered dynamic redox catechol chemistry","volume":"10","author":"Gan","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101388","DOI":"10.1016\/j.progpolymsci.2021.101388","article-title":"Recent advances in wet adhesives: Adhesion mechanism, design principle and applications","volume":"116","author":"Cui","year":"2021","journal-title":"Prog. Polym. Sci."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2414092","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.202414092","article-title":"A Wet-Adhesion and Swelling-Resistant Hydrogel for Fast Hemostasis, Accelerated Tissue Injury Healing and Bioelectronics","volume":"37","author":"Shen","year":"2025","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7972","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biomaterials.2012.07.055","article-title":"Injectable citrate-based mussel-inspired tissue bioadhesives with high wet strength for sutureless wound closure","volume":"33","author":"Mehdizadeh","year":"2012","journal-title":"Biomaterials"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eaba8014","DOI":"10.1126\/scitranslmed.aba8014","article-title":"Bioadhesive hydrogels demonstrating pH-independent and ultrafast gelation promote gastric ulcer healing in pigs","volume":"12","author":"Xu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"166","DOI":"10.1038\/s41392-024-01852-x","article-title":"Harnessing the potential of hydrogels for advanced therapeutic applications: Current achievements and future directions","volume":"9","author":"Lu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Signal Transduct. Target. Ther."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"842","DOI":"10.1016\/j.msec.2016.09.081","article-title":"Mechanical properties of PNIPAM based hydrogels: A review","volume":"70","author":"Haq","year":"2017","journal-title":"Mater. Sci. Eng. C"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1752","DOI":"10.1021\/acsbiomaterials.6b00149","article-title":"New visible-light photoinitiating system for improved print fidelity in gelatin-based bioinks","volume":"2","author":"Lim","year":"2016","journal-title":"ACS Biomater. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biomaterials.2015.07.014","article-title":"Rapidly light-activated surgical protein glue inspired by mussel adhesion and insect structural crosslinking","volume":"67","author":"Jeon","year":"2015","journal-title":"Biomaterials"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5413","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0737381100","article-title":"Synthetic matrix metalloproteinase-sensitive hydrogels for the conduction of tissue regeneration: Engineering cell-invasion characteristics","volume":"100","author":"Lutolf","year":"2003","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7836","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biomaterials.2010.06.061","article-title":"Enhanced proteolytic degradation of molecularly engineered PEG hydrogels in response to MMP-1 and MMP-2","volume":"31","author":"Patterson","year":"2010","journal-title":"Biomaterials"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1903863","DOI":"10.1002\/adfm.201903863","article-title":"Tissue Tapes\u2014Phenolic hyaluronic acid hydrogel patches for off-the-shelf therapy","volume":"29","author":"Shin","year":"2019","journal-title":"Adv. Funct. Mater."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2653","DOI":"10.1021\/bm200464x","article-title":"Catechol-functionalized chitosan\/pluronic hydrogels for tissue adhesives and hemostatic materials","volume":"12","author":"Ryu","year":"2011","journal-title":"Biomacromolecules"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2561","DOI":"10.1021\/acsnano.6b05318","article-title":"Mussel-inspired adhesive and tough hydrogel based on nanoclay confined dopamine polymerization","volume":"11","author":"Han","year":"2017","journal-title":"ACS Nano"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1016\/j.progpolymsci.2019.02.007","article-title":"Rational design of microfabricated electroconductive hydrogels for biomedical applications","volume":"92","author":"Walker","year":"2019","journal-title":"Prog. Polym. Sci."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"603","DOI":"10.1016\/j.progpolymsci.2006.06.001","article-title":"Chitin and chitosan: Properties and applications","volume":"31","author":"Rinaudo","year":"2006","journal-title":"Prog. Polym. Sci."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12647","DOI":"10.1021\/acsomega.9b01302","article-title":"Mussel-inspired cell\/tissue-adhesive, hemostatic hydrogels for tissue engineering applications","volume":"4","author":"Suneetha","year":"2019","journal-title":"ACS Omega"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13839","DOI":"10.1021\/acsomega.4c07119","article-title":"Enhanced bioadhesive and antimicrobial properties of PVA\/ascorbic acid composite with tannic acid synthesized by gamma irradiation for biomedical applications","volume":"10","author":"Bassioni","year":"2025","journal-title":"ACS Omega"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"310","DOI":"10.1038\/s41578-019-0171-7","article-title":"Overcoming the translational barriers of tissue adhesives","volume":"5","author":"Taboada","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Mater."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124557","DOI":"10.1016\/j.carbpol.2025.124557","article-title":"Light-activated chitosan hydrogel: A bioadhesive platform for emergency hemostasis and bacteria-infected wound management","volume":"372","author":"Dong","year":"2025","journal-title":"Carbohydr. Polym."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8271","DOI":"10.1039\/C4CS00185K","article-title":"Jack of all trades: Versatile catechol crosslinking mechanisms","volume":"43","author":"Yang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Chem. Soc. Rev."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2875","DOI":"10.1021\/acsabm.3c00306","article-title":"How to Design Catechol-Containing Hydrogels for Cell Encapsulation Despite Catechol Toxicity","volume":"6","author":"Guyot","year":"2023","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Bio Mater."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2302078","DOI":"10.1002\/adhm.202302078","article-title":"Photo-cross-linkable, injectable, and highly adhesive GelMA-glycol chitosan hydrogels for cartilage repair","volume":"12","author":"Paul","year":"2023","journal-title":"Adv. Healthc. Mater."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"40290","DOI":"10.1021\/acsami.1c10048","article-title":"Stretchable and bioadhesive gelatin methacryloyl-based hydrogels enabled by in situ dopamine polymerization","volume":"13","author":"Montazerian","year":"2021","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10539","DOI":"10.1021\/la4020288","article-title":"Structure of Polydopamine: A Never-Ending Story?","volume":"29","author":"Liebscher","year":"2013","journal-title":"Langmuir"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2814","DOI":"10.1039\/D2SM00058J","article-title":"Antibacterial, Wearable, Transparent Tannic Acid\u2013Thioctic Acid\u2013Phytic Acid Hydrogel for Adhesive Bandages","volume":"18","author":"Shao","year":"2022","journal-title":"Soft Matter"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"154","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1237265","article-title":"One-Step Assembly of Coordination Complexes for Versatile Film and Particle Engineering","volume":"341","author":"Ejima","year":"2013","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1704235","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.201704235","article-title":"Paintable and rapidly bondable conductive hydrogels as therapeutic cardiac patches","volume":"30","author":"Liang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1016\/j.addr.2009.09.004","article-title":"Biodegradation, biodistribution and toxicity of chitosan","volume":"62","author":"Kean","year":"2010","journal-title":"Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Reay, S.L., Marina Ferreira, A., Hilkens, C.M.U., and Novakovic, K. (2025). The Paradoxical Immunomodulatory Effects of Chitosan in Biomedicine. Polymers, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/polym17010019"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102402","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mtbio.2025.102402","article-title":"Temperature-independent and photocrosslinkable hydrolyzed GelMA with tunable mechanics for biofabrication","volume":"35","author":"Kyeong","year":"2025","journal-title":"Mater. Today Bio"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Duceac, I.A., and Coseri, S. (2022). Chitosan Schiff-Base Hydrogels\u2014A Critical Perspective Review. Gels, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/gels8120779"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3846","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.biomac.7b01058","article-title":"Antimicrobial Chitosan and Chitosan Derivatives: A Review of the Structure\u2013Activity Relationship","volume":"18","author":"Sahariah","year":"2017","journal-title":"Biomacromolecules"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1901580","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.201901580","article-title":"Tetra-PEG based hydrogel sealants for in vivo visceral hemostasis","volume":"31","author":"Bu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1910748","DOI":"10.1002\/adfm.201910748","article-title":"Physical double-network hydrogel adhesives with rapid shape adaptability, fast self-healing, antioxidant and NIR\/pH stimulus-responsiveness for multidrug-resistant bacterial infection and removable wound dressing","volume":"30","author":"Zhao","year":"2020","journal-title":"Adv. Funct. Mater."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12290","DOI":"10.1021\/acsnano.3c00933","article-title":"A conductive and adhesive hydrogel composed of MXene nanoflakes as a paintable cardiac patch for infarcted heart repair","volume":"17","author":"Lee","year":"2023","journal-title":"ACS Nano"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S66","DOI":"10.1017\/S0899823X00193869","article-title":"Strategies to prevent surgical site infections in acute care hospitals: 2014 update","volume":"35","author":"Anderson","year":"2014","journal-title":"Infect. Control Hosp. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biomaterials.2018.08.044","article-title":"Antibacterial adhesive injectable hydrogels with rapid self-healing, extensibility and compressibility as wound dressing for joints skin wound healing","volume":"183","author":"Qu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Biomaterials"},{"key":"ref_87","first-page":"42","article-title":"Quantification of Substitution of Gelatin Methacryloyl: Best Practice and Current Pitfalls","volume":"19","author":"Truffault","year":"2017","journal-title":"Biomacromolecules"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"254","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biomaterials.2015.08.045","article-title":"Synthesis, properties, and biomedical applications of gelatin methacryloyl (GelMA) hydrogels","volume":"73","author":"Yue","year":"2015","journal-title":"Biomaterials"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6702","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biomaterials.2009.08.055","article-title":"Photoinitiated polymerization of PEG-diacrylate with lithium phenyl-2,4,6-trimethylbenzoylphosphinate: Polymerization rate and cytocompatibility","volume":"30","author":"Fairbanks","year":"2009","journal-title":"Biomaterials"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11216","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.macromol.5c02072","article-title":"Tannic Acid-Based Hyperbranched Polyurethane with Superior Mechanical Properties, Room-Temperature Self-Healability, and Ultrahigh Adhesion for Scalable Production","volume":"58","author":"Liang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Macromolecules"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Savsani, K., Aitchison, A.H., Allen, N.B., Adams, E.A., and Adams, S.B. (2025). The use of Gelatin Methacrylate (GelMA) in cartilage tissue engineering: A comprehensive review. Bioengineering, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/bioengineering12070700"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5536","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biomaterials.2010.03.064","article-title":"Cell-laden microengineered gelatin methacrylate hydrogels","volume":"31","author":"Nichol","year":"2010","journal-title":"Biomaterials"},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.1098\/rsif.2010.0223","article-title":"Growth factor delivery-based tissue engineering: General approaches and a review of recent developments","volume":"8","author":"Lee","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. R. Soc. Interface"},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E25","DOI":"10.1097\/BRS.0b013e3181b9fc45","article-title":"Postoperative Cervical Cord Compression Induced by Hydrogel (DuraSeal): A Possible Complication","volume":"35","author":"Redfern","year":"2010","journal-title":"Spine"},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11804","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.analchem.6b03437","article-title":"Analysis of Pre-existing IgG and IgM Antibodies against Polyethylene Glycol (PEG) in the General Population","volume":"88","author":"Yang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7993","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-024-52418-y","article-title":"Highly-stable, injectable, conductive hydrogel for chronic neuromodulation","volume":"15","author":"Yang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33523","DOI":"10.1021\/acsami.8b10064","article-title":"Ultratough, self-healing, and tissue-adhesive hydrogel for wound dressing","volume":"10","author":"Chen","year":"2018","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces"},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11269","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1401291111","article-title":"Synthesis of Bioactive Protein Hydrogels by Genetically Encoded SpyTag-SpyCatcher Chemistry","volume":"111","author":"Sun","year":"2014","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2812","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.biomac.6b00566","article-title":"Engineering Protein Hydrogels Using SpyCatcher-SpyTag Chemistry","volume":"17","author":"Gao","year":"2016","journal-title":"Biomacromolecules"},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yin, X., Liao, B., Li, H., Huang, M.-Y., and Niu, F.-X. (2025). SpyCatcher-Multiplicity Tunes Nanoscaffold Hydrogels for Enhanced Catalysis of Regulated Enzymes. Processes, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/pr13124009"},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tunn, I., Harrington, M.J., and Blank, K.G. (2019). Bioinspired Histidine\u2013Zn2+ Coordination for Tuning the Mechanical Properties of Self-Healing Coiled Coil Cross-Linked Hydrogels. Biomimetics, 4.","DOI":"10.3390\/biomimetics4010025"},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12826","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.RA119.009531","article-title":"Recombinant Mussel Protein Pvfp-5\u03b2: A Potential Tissue Bioadhesive","volume":"294","author":"Santonocito","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"997","DOI":"10.1039\/D0MH01231A","article-title":"Mussel Foot Protein Inspired Tough Tissue-Selective Underwater Adhesive Hydrogel","volume":"8","author":"Fan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mater. Horiz."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"244","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actbio.2020.07.033","article-title":"Body Temperature-Activated Protein-Based Injectable Adhesive Hydrogel Incorporated with Decellularized Adipose Extracellular Matrix for Tissue-Specific Regenerative Stem Cell Therapy","volume":"114","author":"Jeon","year":"2020","journal-title":"Acta Biomater."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9715","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.chemmater.1c03477","article-title":"Self-Assembly of a Barnacle Cement Protein (MrCP20) into Adhesive Nanofibrils with Concomitant Regulation of CaCO3 Polymorphism","volume":"33","author":"Mohanram","year":"2021","journal-title":"Chem. Mater."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4116","DOI":"10.1021\/acsbiomaterials.5c00880","article-title":"Design of a Thermoresponsive, Scalable, and Robust Recombinant Protein-Based Bioadhesive by Combining Elastin-Like Polypeptide with Barnacle Cement Protein","volume":"11","author":"Liang","year":"2025","journal-title":"ACS Biomater. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2528","DOI":"10.1021\/acsbiomaterials.8b00408","article-title":"Engineering Adhesive and Antimicrobial Hyaluronic Acid\/Elastin-Like Polypeptide Hybrid Hydrogels for Tissue Engineering Applications","volume":"4","author":"Spencer","year":"2018","journal-title":"ACS Biomater. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eabf9635","DOI":"10.1126\/sciadv.abf9635","article-title":"Snake Extract\u2013Laden Hemostatic Bioadhesive Gel Cross-Linked by Visible Light","volume":"7","author":"Guo","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Adv."},{"key":"ref_109","first-page":"1","article-title":"Advancements in hydrogel design for articular cartilage regeneration: A comprehensive review","volume":"43","author":"Fallahi","year":"2025","journal-title":"Bioact. Mater."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121683","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biomaterials.2022.121683","article-title":"ROS-responsive hydrogel coating modified titanium promotes vascularization and osteointegration of bone defects by orchestrating immunomodulation","volume":"287","author":"Li","year":"2022","journal-title":"Biomaterials"},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lin, S., Jin, Q., Wang, J., Wu, S., and Zhou, Y. (2025). Recent advancements in smart responsive tissue adhesives for medical applications. Front. Med., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmed.2025.1696667"},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"220","DOI":"10.1021\/acsmacrolett.5b00018","article-title":"Boronic Acid-Based Hydrogels Undergo Self-Healing at Neutral and Acidic pH","volume":"4","author":"Deng","year":"2015","journal-title":"ACS Macro Lett."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2001820","DOI":"10.1002\/adfm.202001820","article-title":"Liquid bandage harvests robust adhesive, hemostatic, and antibacterial performances as a first-aid tissue adhesive","volume":"30","author":"Ma","year":"2020","journal-title":"Adv. Funct. Mater."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sawadkar, P., Lali, F., Garcia-Gareta, E., Garrido, B.G., Chaudhry, A., Matharu, P., Kyriakidis, C., and Greco, K. (2025). Innovative hydrogels in cutaneous wound healing: Current status and future perspectives. Front. Bioeng. Biotechnol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fbioe.2025.1454903"},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1038\/nmat4758","article-title":"Complete prevention of blood loss with self-sealing haemostatic needles","volume":"16","author":"Shin","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Mater."},{"key":"ref_116","first-page":"395","article-title":"A paintable and adhesive hydrogel cardiac patch with sustained release of ANGPTL4 for infarcted heart repair","volume":"31","author":"Lee","year":"2024","journal-title":"Bioact. Mater."},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Guo, Q., Li, R., Zhao, Y., Wang, H., Luo, W., Zhang, J., Li, Z., and Wang, P. (2025). An injectable, self-healing, anti-infective, and anti-inflammatory novel glycyrrhizic acid hydrogel for promoting acute wound healing and regeneration. Front. Bioeng. Biotechnol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fbioe.2024.1525644"},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eadj0616","DOI":"10.1126\/scitranslmed.adj0616","article-title":"A tough bioadhesive hydrogel supports sutureless sealing of the dural membrane in porcine and ex vivo human tissue","volume":"16","author":"Wu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sci. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100109","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ntm.2025.100109","article-title":"Next-generation injectable hydrogels: Advanced crosslinking strategies, multi-stimuli responsiveness, and translational advances for precision regenerative medicine","volume":"5","author":"Sabarees","year":"2026","journal-title":"Nano TransMed"},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e70249","DOI":"10.1002\/hsr2.70249","article-title":"Is Hydrogel an Appropriate Bioadhesive Material for Sutureless Oral Wound Closure?","volume":"7","author":"Paolini","year":"2024","journal-title":"Health Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2060","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-019-10004-7","article-title":"A strongly adhesive hemostatic hydrogel for the repair of arterial and heart bleeds","volume":"10","author":"Hong","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, X., Yang, X., Sun, Z., Guo, X., Teng, Y., Hou, S., Shi, J., and Lv, Q. (2024). Progress in injectable hydrogels for the treatment of incompressible bleeding: An update. Front. Bioeng. Biotechnol., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fbioe.2023.1335211"},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2007663","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.202007663","article-title":"Multifaceted design and emerging applications of tissue adhesives","volume":"33","author":"Ma","year":"2021","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"ref_124","unstructured":"(2015). Standard Test Method for Burst Strength of Surgical Sealants (Standard No. ASTM F2392-04(2015))."},{"key":"ref_125","first-page":"23","article-title":"Immune-modulated adhesive hydrogel for enhancing osteochondral graft adhesion and cartilage repair","volume":"49","author":"Zhou","year":"2025","journal-title":"Bioact. Mater."},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bojan, A.J., Karami, P., Procter, P., and Pioletti, D.P. (2024). Gluing osteochondral fragments: Development of a novel strategy for dual adhesive application in a preclinical model. Front. Med. Eng., 2.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmede.2024.1484232"},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"451","DOI":"10.1007\/s11605-010-1370-0","article-title":"Suture-free anastomosis of the colon experimental comparison of two cyanoacrylate adhesives","volume":"15","author":"Paral","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Gastrointest. Surg."},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"66","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1524-475x.2001.00066.x","article-title":"The pig as a model for human wound healing","volume":"9","author":"Sullivan","year":"2001","journal-title":"Wound Repair Regen."},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biomaterials.2017.09.016","article-title":"A novel DOPA-albumin based tissue adhesive for internal medical applications","volume":"147","author":"Zhu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Biomaterials"},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2400763","DOI":"10.1002\/aelm.202400763","article-title":"Computational and AI-driven design of hydrogels for bioelectronic applications","volume":"11","author":"Finster","year":"2025","journal-title":"Adv. Electron. Mater."}],"container-title":["Molecules"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1420-3049\/31\/17\/3085\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,2]],"date-time":"2026-09-02T14:36:14Z","timestamp":1788359774000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1420-3049\/31\/17\/3085"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,2]]},"references-count":130,"journal-issue":{"issue":"17","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9]]}},"alternative-id":["molecules31173085"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/molecules31173085","relation":{},"ISSN":["1420-3049"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1420-3049","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,2]]}}}