{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,10]],"date-time":"2026-09-10T05:09:51Z","timestamp":1789016991532,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":154,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"18","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,8]],"date-time":"2026-09-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1788825600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100002767","name":"Natural Science Foundation of Hunan","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2024JJ6413"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2024JJ6413"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100002767","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100009377","name":"Education Department of Jiangxi Province","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["25A0602"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["25A0602"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100009377","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["25A0602"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["25A0602"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/04d8xwh61","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100019957","name":"Natural Science Foundation Shaanxi Province","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2022NY-224"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022NY-224"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100019957","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100012135","name":"Jiangxi Normal University","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100012135","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/05nkgk822","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100002767","name":"Hunan Provincial Central Government-Guided Local Science and Technology Development Fund","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2025ZYQ128"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2025ZYQ128"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100002767","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Open Funding of Technology Research Center of Hunan Province for Comprehensive Utilization of Associated Fluorite and Fluorine Chemical Engineering","award":["CF-SZX-2023006"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CF-SZX-2023006"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100009377","name":"Project of the College Student Innovation Training Program","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["S202410545002"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["S202410545002"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100009377","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Molecules"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Sodium metal anodes (SMAs) are regarded as the most promising anode materials for next-generation high-energy-density sodium metal batteries, owing to their ultrahigh theoretical specific capacity (1166 mAh g\u22121) and low electrochemical potential (\u22122.71 V vs. SHEs). However, their practical application is severely hindered by a series of interrelated challenges, including unstable solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) films, severe volume fluctuations arising from their hostless nature, uncontrollable dendrite growth, and the consequent low Coulombic efficiency and short cycle life. This review systematically summarizes recent progress in stabilizing SMAs through three major categories of strategies: current collector engineering, which involves the design of planar, three-dimensional, and gradient architectures to regulate the local current density and Na+ flux, thereby guiding uniform nucleation and enabling \u201cbottom-up\u201d dendrite-free deposition; electrolyte engineering, which focuses on optimizing solvents, salts, and functional additives to tailor the solvation structure, construct robust inorganic-rich SEI layers, and utilize electrostatic shielding effects to suppress dendrite formation; and artificial SEI engineering, which aims to pre-construct inorganic or inorganic\u2013organic hybrid protective layers that establish a physicochemical barrier between the electrode and electrolyte, combining high ionic conductivity, superior mechanical strength, and sufficient flexibility. Finally, we provide a critical perspective on the remaining challenges and outline future research directions, emphasizing the importance of in situ\/operando characterization, synergistic multi-strategy integration, breakthroughs in high areal capacity and high-rate performance, and artificial intelligence-driven material discovery for the practical implementation of SMAs.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules31183158","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,8]],"date-time":"2026-09-08T12:51:48Z","timestamp":1788871908000},"page":"3158","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Advanced Design Strategies for Stable Sodium Metal Anodes: A Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"31","author":[{"given":"Jiaoli","family":"Gu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Chemistry and Environmental Science, Xiangnan University, Chenzhou 423000, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hao","family":"Zhu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Chemistry and Environmental Science, Xiangnan University, Chenzhou 423000, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zihao","family":"Bian","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Chemistry and Environmental Science, Xiangnan University, Chenzhou 423000, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Dan","family":"Nie","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Chemistry and Environmental Science, Xiangnan University, Chenzhou 423000, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jiaojiao","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Chemistry and Environmental Science, Xiangnan University, Chenzhou 423000, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0004-2076-753X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anlin","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Chemistry and Environmental Science, Xiangnan University, Chenzhou 423000, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xianming","family":"Xia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Chemistry and Environmental Science, Xiangnan University, Chenzhou 423000, China"},{"name":"Jiangxi Province Key Laboratory of Porous Functional Materials, College of Chemistry and Materials, Jiangxi Normal University, Nanchang 330022, China"},{"name":"Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory of Xiangnan Rare-Precious Metals Compounds Research and Application, Xiangnan University, Chenzhou 423000, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0001-6674-5131","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hang","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Jiangxi Province Key Laboratory of Porous Functional Materials, College of Chemistry and Materials, Jiangxi Normal University, Nanchang 330022, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Bin","family":"Deng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Chemistry and Environmental Science, Xiangnan University, Chenzhou 423000, China"},{"name":"Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory of Xiangnan Rare-Precious Metals Compounds Research and Application, Xiangnan University, Chenzhou 423000, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6830-8998","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ruijin","family":"Yu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Chemistry & Pharmacy, Northwest A&F University, Yangling 712100, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,8]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2499","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-020-16259-9","article-title":"A retrospective on lithium-ion batteries","volume":"11","author":"Xie","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. 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