{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,10]],"date-time":"2026-09-10T09:06:05Z","timestamp":1789031165646,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":56,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"18","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,10]],"date-time":"2026-09-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1788998400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Molecules"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The generation of agro-industrial waste necessitates the search for viable, sustainable alternatives for its utilization; therefore, Hydrothermal Carbonization (HTC) is proposed as a means to transform waste into carbonaceous products that can improve soil quality. To this end, conditions in the HTC process were evaluated for the production of hydrochar from tequila vinasse and Agave tequilana Weber leaves. Different reaction times (8, 12, and 16 h) and catalyst concentrations (0%, 5%, and 10%) of citric acid were evaluated at 200 \u00b0C, using fresh agave leaves and raw vinasse. The hydrochars were characterized using various instrumental analyses (XPS, FTIR, SEM-EDS, and XRF) to determine their structure, functional groups, and elemental composition. The highest yield was obtained at 8 h without a catalyst (44.6%), decreasing with increasing process time. The vinasse served effectively as an aqueous medium and natural catalyst, with its acidic pH (3.8), thereby eliminating the need for water and acid addition. With longer processing times, microspheres form within the hydrochar structure due to carbohydrate degradation. The hydrochar produced without a catalyst and with a shorter reaction time exhibited functional groups (carboxyl and hydroxyl) that enhance Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC), thereby increasing the contact surface area. Under the evaluated conditions, the HTC process is suitable for producing hydrochar from agave leaves and vinasse.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules31183173","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,10]],"date-time":"2026-09-10T08:07:41Z","timestamp":1789027661000},"page":"3173","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Production and Physicochemical and Structural Characterization of a Hydrochar Derived from Agave Leaves and Tequila Vinasse with Potential Agricultural Applications"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"31","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5086-8949","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dania Carolina","family":"Uvario-Mac\u00edas","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"University Center for Biological and Agricultural Sciences (CUCBA), University of Guadalajara, Guadalajara-Nogales Highway, Km 15.5, Las Agujas, Zapopan 45020, Jalisco, Mexico"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"software","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-original-draft","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2300-6195","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jos\u00e9","family":"Anzaldo-Hern\u00e1ndez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Wood, Cellulose, and Paper (CUCEI), University of Guadalajara, Guadalajara-Nogales Highway, Km 15.5, Las Agujas, Zapopan 45020, Jalisco, Mexico"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"software","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"validation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"given":"Carlos Alberto","family":"Ram\u00edrez-Barrag\u00e1n","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Wood, Cellulose, and Paper (CUCEI), University of Guadalajara, Guadalajara-Nogales Highway, Km 15.5, Las Agujas, Zapopan 45020, Jalisco, Mexico"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"data-curation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9224-1789","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Fernando","family":"Santacruz-Ruvalcaba","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University Center for Biological and Agricultural Sciences (CUCBA), University of Guadalajara, Guadalajara-Nogales Highway, Km 15.5, Las Agujas, Zapopan 45020, Jalisco, Mexico"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"supervision","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"visualization","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1905-9937","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dulce","family":"Flores-Renter\u00eda","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"SECIHTI-Cinvestav Saltillo Unit, Ramos Arizpe Industrial Park, Ramos Arizpe 25900, Coahuila, Mexico"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"supervision","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2784-322X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Juan Carlos","family":"Pizano-Andrade","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University Center for Biological and Agricultural Sciences (CUCBA), University of Guadalajara, Guadalajara-Nogales Highway, Km 15.5, Las Agujas, Zapopan 45020, Jalisco, Mexico"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"writing-original-draft","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5292-3099","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Eduardo","family":"Salcedo-P\u00e9rez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University Center for Biological and Agricultural Sciences (CUCBA), University of Guadalajara, Guadalajara-Nogales Highway, Km 15.5, Las Agujas, Zapopan 45020, Jalisco, Mexico"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"resources","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"funding-acquisition","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"project-administration","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-original-draft","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"supervision","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"2971","article-title":"Adaptive strategies of agribusiness in the face of climate change: A critical analysis","volume":"9","author":"Angulo","year":"2024","journal-title":"Polo Conoc."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.56768\/jytp.1.1.03","article-title":"Agricultural wastes in climate change mitigation","volume":"1","author":"Sariyer","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Glob. Clim. Change"},{"key":"ref_3","first-page":"112","article-title":"Effects of organic amendments on soil fertility and environmental quality: A review","volume":"8","author":"Aytenew","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Plant Sci."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106985","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaap.2025.106985","article-title":"A bibliographic study of biochar and hydrochar: Differences and similarities","volume":"187","author":"Cognigni","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jiec.2017.08.026","article-title":"Minireview of potential applications of hydrochar derived from hydrothermal carbonization of biomass","volume":"57","author":"Fang","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Ind. Eng. Chem."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, M., Kavindi, G.A.G., and Lei, Z. (2023). Environmental sustainability-based comparison for production, properties, and applications of biochar and hydrochar. Current Developments in Biotechnology and Bioengineering, Elsevier.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-323-91873-2.00012-1"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1080\/1536383X.2023.2260027","article-title":"Hydrothermal carbon spheres produced from glucose, cyclodextrin, and starch","volume":"32","author":"Iqbal","year":"2023","journal-title":"Fuller. Nanotub. Carbon Nanostruct."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"581","DOI":"10.1016\/j.energy.2019.01.035","article-title":"Insights into biochar and hydrochar production and applications: A review","volume":"171","author":"Zhang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Energy"},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"116","article-title":"Hydrochar-embedded carboxymethyl cellulose-g-poly(acrylic acid) hydrogel as a stable soil water retention and nutrient release agent for plant growth","volume":"7","author":"Zhang","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Bioresour. Bioprod."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102","DOI":"10.1007\/s12517-020-06358-8","article-title":"Hydrochar-based soil amendments for agriculture: A review of recent progress","volume":"14","author":"Islam","year":"2021","journal-title":"Arab. J. Geosci."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2715","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.9b05864","article-title":"Application of hydrochar altered soil microbial community composition and the molecular structure of native soil organic carbon in a paddy soil","volume":"54","author":"Sun","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Tequila Regulatory Council (CRT) (2026, January 10). Tequila Regulatory Council, Statistical Information on the Agave tequilana Production Chain. Available online: https:\/\/www.crt.org.mx\/EstadisticasCRTweb\/."},{"key":"ref_13","first-page":"211","article-title":"Perspectives on the social, economic, and environmental sustainability of the tequila industry","volume":"17","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ra Ximhai"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"245","DOI":"10.1007\/s42398-021-00172-y","article-title":"Agave biomass: A potential resource for the production of value-added products","volume":"4","author":"Kumar","year":"2021","journal-title":"Environ. Sustain."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Honorato-Salazar, J.A., Aburto, J., and Amezcua-Allieri, M.A. (2021). Agave and Opuntia species as sustainable feedstocks for bioenergy and byproducts. Sustainability, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/su132112263"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121166","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fuel.2021.121166","article-title":"Hydrothermal conversion of different lignocellulosic biomass feedstocks: Effect of process conditions on hydrochar structures","volume":"302","author":"Riesco","year":"2021","journal-title":"Fuel"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"521","DOI":"10.1016\/j.wasman.2020.09.009","article-title":"Co-hydrothermal carbonization of food waste with yard waste for solid biofuel production: Hydrochar characterization and its pelletization","volume":"118","author":"Sharma","year":"2020","journal-title":"Waste Manag."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11819","DOI":"10.1007\/s13399-024-06097-w","article-title":"Production of hydrochar from the hydrothermal carbonization of food waste feedstock for use as an adsorbent in the removal of heavy metals from water","volume":"15","author":"Pasipanodya","year":"2025","journal-title":"Biomass Conv. Bioref."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.1007\/s13399-021-01476-z","article-title":"Hydrothermal carbonization of sugarcane industry by-products and process water reuse: Structural, morphological, and fuel properties of hydrochars","volume":"12","author":"Fregolente","year":"2022","journal-title":"Biomass Conv. Bioref."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101024","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cogsc.2025.101024","article-title":"The effects of feedstock types and their properties on hydrothermal carbonization and resulting hydrochar: A review","volume":"53","author":"Shanmugam","year":"2025","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Green Sustain. Chem."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, S., Zhu, X., Zhou, S., Shang, H., Luo, J., and Tsang, D.C. (2019). Hydrothermal carbonization for hydrochar production and its application. Biochar from Biomass and Waste, Elsevier.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-811729-3.00015-7"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.1007\/s10311-021-01311-x","article-title":"Hydrothermal carbonization of biomass and waste: A review","volume":"20","author":"Zhang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Environ. Chem. Lett."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125629","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2020.125629","article-title":"Regimes of hydrochar yield from hydrothermal degradation of various lignocellulosic biomass: A review","volume":"288","author":"Khan","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ighalo, J.O., Akaeme, F.C., Georgin, J., de Oliveira, J.S., and Franco, D.S.P. (2025). Biomass hydrochar: A critical review of process chemistry, synthesis methodology, and applications. Sustainability, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/su17041660"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1007\/s10725-022-00837-6","article-title":"The beneficial roles of trace and ultratrace elements in plants","volume":"100","author":"Kaur","year":"2023","journal-title":"Plant Growth Regul."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2014.08.057","article-title":"Analysis of two biochars and one hydrochar from different feedstocks: Focus on environmental, nutritional, and horticultural considerations","volume":"86","author":"Fornes","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geoderma.2018.07.034","article-title":"Release of nutrients and organic carbon in different soil types from hydrochar obtained using sugarcane bagasse and vinasse","volume":"334","author":"Bento","year":"2019","journal-title":"Geoderma"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1104","DOI":"10.1080\/03650340.2020.1779227","article-title":"Hydrochar mitigates salt toxicity and oxidative stress in maize plants","volume":"67","author":"Torabian","year":"2021","journal-title":"Arch. Agron. Soil Sci."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2383","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matpr.2021.01.941","article-title":"Estimation of trace elemental concentration in Azadirachta indica and Withania somnifera anti-cancer medicinal plants of Telangana using EDXRF technique","volume":"43","author":"Jyothsna","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mater. Today Proc."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"(2007). Establishing Criteria for Determining Remediation Concentrations for Soils Contaminated with Arsenic, Barium, Beryllium, Cadmium, Hexavalent Chromium, Mercury, Nickel, Silver, Lead, Selenium, Thallium, and\/or Vanadium (Standard No. NOM-147-SEMARNAT\/SSA1-2004). Available online: https:\/\/www.dof.gob.mx\/nota_detalle.php?codigo=4964569&fecha=02\/03\/2007#gsc.tab=0."},{"key":"ref_31","first-page":"14","article-title":"The C= O bond, part III: Carboxylic acids","volume":"33","author":"Smith","year":"2018","journal-title":"Spectroscopy"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5976","DOI":"10.15376\/biores.13.3.5976-6002","article-title":"Effects of biomass type, carbonization process, and activation method on the properties of bio-based activated carbons","volume":"13","author":"Siipola","year":"2018","journal-title":"BioResources"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"531","DOI":"10.1007\/s13399-018-0363-1","article-title":"Physicochemical characteristics and FTIR-derived structural parameters of hydrochar produced by hydrothermal carbonization of pea pod (Pisum sativum Linn.) waste","volume":"9","author":"Dong","year":"2019","journal-title":"Biomass Conv. Bioref."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"G\u00f3mez-Navarro, C.S., Warren-Vega, W.M., Serna-Carrizales, J.C., Z\u00e1rate-Guzm\u00e1n, A.I., Ocampo-P\u00e9rez, R., Carrasco-Mar\u00edn, F., and Romero-Cano, L.A. (2022). Evaluation of the environmental performance of adsorbent materials prepared from agave bagasse for water remediation: Solid waste management proposal of the tequila industry. Materials, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma16010008"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Guo, X., Li, M., Liu, A., Jiang, M., Niu, X., and Liu, X. (2020). Adsorption mechanisms and characteristics of Hg2+ removal by different fractions of biochar. Water, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/w12082105"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131615","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2022.131615","article-title":"Co-hydrothermal carbonization of sewage sludge and coal slime with sulfuric acid for N, S-doped hydrochar","volume":"354","author":"Yang","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125349","DOI":"10.1016\/j.molliq.2024.125349","article-title":"Efficient adsorption of cationic and anionic dyes using hydrochar nanoparticles prepared from orange peel","volume":"409","author":"Hamad","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Mol. Liq."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"160","DOI":"10.1002\/bbb.198","article-title":"Hydrothermal carbonization of biomass: A summary and discussion of chemical mechanisms for process engineering","volume":"4","author":"Funke","year":"2010","journal-title":"Biofuels Bioprod. Bioref."},{"key":"ref_39","first-page":"185","article-title":"Physicochemical characterization of humic acids in soils from Hidalgo, Mexico","volume":"13","year":"2025","journal-title":"P\u00e4di Bol. Cient. Cienc. B\u00e1sicas Ing. ICBI"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116591","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geoderma.2023.116591","article-title":"Drivers of biochar-mediated improvement of soil water retention capacity based on soil texture: A meta-analysis","volume":"437","author":"Wei","year":"2023","journal-title":"Geoderma"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116187","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geoderma.2022.116187","article-title":"The pyrolytic fingerprint of nitrogen compounds reflects the content and quality of soil organic carbon","volume":"428","author":"Carral","year":"2022","journal-title":"Geoderma"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"881","DOI":"10.1007\/s00374-021-01580-2","article-title":"The effect of agroecosystem management on the distribution of C functional groups in soil organic matter: A review","volume":"57","author":"Audette","year":"2021","journal-title":"Biol. Fertil. Soils"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"508","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biortech.2018.05.019","article-title":"Hydrothermal carbonization of holocellulose into hydrochar: Structural, chemical characteristics, and combustion behavior","volume":"263","author":"Liu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Bioresour. Technol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rser.2018.03.071","article-title":"A review of the hydrothermal carbonization of biomass waste for hydrochar formation: Process conditions, fundamentals, and physicochemical properties","volume":"90","author":"Wang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Masoumi, S., Borugadda, V.B., Nanda, S., and Dalai, A.K. (2021). Hydrochar: A review on its production technologies and applications. Catalysts, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/catal11080939"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109166","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jece.2022.109166","article-title":"Fertility assessment and nutrient conversion of hydrochars derived from co-hydrothermal carbonization between livestock manure and corn cob","volume":"11","author":"Li","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Environ. Chem. Eng."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42614","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-024-33807-8","article-title":"Ecological consequences of biochar and hydrochar amendments in soil: Assessing environmental impacts and influences","volume":"31","author":"Kravchenko","year":"2024","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1007\/s11270-021-05134-y","article-title":"Effect of temperature on the properties of liquid product from hydrothermal carbonization of animal manure and function as a heavy metal leaching agent in soil","volume":"232","author":"Li","year":"2021","journal-title":"Water Air Soil Pollut."},{"key":"ref_49","first-page":"17","article-title":"Reduction of solids and organic load concentrations in tequila vinasses using a polyacrylamide (PAM) polymer flocculant","volume":"23","year":"2007","journal-title":"Rev. Int. Contam. Ambient."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101779","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biteb.2024.101779","article-title":"Simultaneous hydrogen and methane production by tequila vinasses dark fermentation in series with anaerobic digestion","volume":"25","year":"2024","journal-title":"Bioresour. Technol. Rep."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120068","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2022.120068","article-title":"Citric acid modified biochar application at a low dosage can synchronically mitigate the nitrogenous gas pollutants emission from rice paddy soils","volume":"312","author":"Sun","year":"2022","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_52","unstructured":"TAPPI (1992). Technical Association of the Pulp and Paper Industries Test Methods, TAPPI Press."},{"key":"ref_53","unstructured":"(2016). Water Analysis\u2014Measurement of pH in Natural, Waste, and Treated Wastewater\u2014Test Method, Mexican Standard (Standard No. NMX-AA-008-SCFI-2016). Available online: https:\/\/www.gob.mx\/cms\/uploads\/attachment\/file\/166767\/NMX-AA-008-SCFI-2016.pdf."},{"key":"ref_54","unstructured":"(2000). Water Analysis\u2014Determination of Electrolytic Conductivity\u2014Test Method, Mexican Standard (Standard No. NMX-AA-093-SCFI-2000). Available online: https:\/\/www.gob.mx\/cms\/uploads\/attachment\/file\/166800\/NMX-AA-093-SCFI-2000.pdf."},{"key":"ref_55","unstructured":"Cabrera Chavarr\u00eda, L.G., Moreno Medrano, E.D., and Anzaldo Hernandez, J. (2021). Synthesis of a Functionalized Polylactic Acid\/Carbon Composite Applied as a Bioadsorbent for Ionic Contaminants in Water, University of Guadalajara."},{"key":"ref_56","unstructured":"Chicu, D. (2020). The NPV and IRR Methods in the Evaluation of Investment Projects, Universitat Oberta de Catalunya."}],"container-title":["Molecules"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1420-3049\/31\/18\/3173\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,10]],"date-time":"2026-09-10T08:08:45Z","timestamp":1789027725000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1420-3049\/31\/18\/3173"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,10]]},"references-count":56,"journal-issue":{"issue":"18","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9]]}},"alternative-id":["molecules31183173"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/molecules31183173","relation":{},"ISSN":["1420-3049"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1420-3049","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,10]]}}}