{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,14]],"date-time":"2026-09-14T10:06:33Z","timestamp":1789380393494,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":149,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"18","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,10]],"date-time":"2026-09-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1788998400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Molecules"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Graphitic carbon nitride (g-C3N4) has proved to be an excellent and versatile catalyst, devoid of any metal, for the sustainable production of heterocycles. Owing to its nitrogen-rich conjugated framework, which provides Lewis-basic and hydrogen-bonding sites and enables tuneable electronic properties, together with its excellent thermal and chemical stability and recyclability, graphitic carbon nitride (g-C3N4) has emerged as a versatile metal-free heterogeneous catalyst for the synthesis of heterocycles. In this review, a critical analysis of recent trends in g-C3N4-catalysed multicomponent reactions (MCRs) and their related approaches towards the synthesis of pharmaceutically important heterocycles is provided. This review highlights current developments in g-C3N4-catalysed multicomponent reactions (MCRs) for the synthesis of biologically and pharmaceutically relevant heterocyclic frameworks, including pyrimidines, pyridines, pyrans, chromenes, tetrazoles, quinolines, imidazoles, triazoles, and spirocyclic heterocycles. Mechanistic aspects, including Lewis acid\u2013base mechanism, photocatalysis and formation of radicals, have been highlighted to establish the correlation between catalyst properties and the reaction outcomes. The sustainability of the methodology is assessed through reaction mass efficiency, atom economy, process mass intensity, E-factor, energy efficiency and catalyst reusability. Critically analysed advancements have been made regarding the development of hybrid catalysts based on g-C3N4. Challenges faced during catalyst deactivation, utilization of visible light, scalability and incompleteness in green metric reporting are addressed.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules31183188","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,10]],"date-time":"2026-09-10T13:04:57Z","timestamp":1789045497000},"page":"3188","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Graphitic Carbon Nitride (g-C3N4)-Catalysed Green Synthesis of Heterocycles: Progress, Mechanistic Insights, and Future Perspectives"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"31","author":[{"given":"Jayanthi","family":"Barasarathi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, INTI International University, Persiaran Perdana BBN, Putra Nilai, Nilai 71800, Negeri Sembilan, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8010-0009","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kasi","family":"Venkatesan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Chemistry Division, Department of H&S, CVR College of Engineering, Vastunagar, Mangalpalli (V), R.R Dist, Hyderabad 501510, Telangana, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0001-7504-197X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Saleh","family":"Alofi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemistry, College of Science in Yanbu, Taibah University, Yanbu Governorate, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4144-990X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Malgorzata","family":"Jele\u0144","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Organic Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The Medical University of Silesia, Jagiello\u0144ska 4, 41-200 Sosnowiec, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9870-9741","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Parasuraman","family":"Karthikeyan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"PG and Research Department of Chemistry, Pachaiyappas College Campus, University of Madras, Chennai 600030, Tamil Nadu, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0007-7449-9421","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Potchanun","family":"Sripothong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Engineering and Technology, Shinawatra University, Pathum Thani 12160, Thailand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5389-1079","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Beata","family":"Morak M\u0142odawska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Organic Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The Medical University of Silesia, Jagiello\u0144ska 4, 41-200 Sosnowiec, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"711","DOI":"10.1002\/smll.200901934","article-title":"Graphene oxide, highly reduced graphene oxide, and graphene: Versatile building blocks for carbon-based materials","volume":"6","author":"Compton","year":"2010","journal-title":"Small"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"557","DOI":"10.1007\/s10311-020-01084-9","article-title":"Environmental applications of carbon-based materials: A review","volume":"19","author":"Gopinath","year":"2021","journal-title":"Environ. 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