{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,14]],"date-time":"2026-09-14T10:06:55Z","timestamp":1789380415902,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":130,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"18","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,14]],"date-time":"2026-09-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1789344000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Deanship of Scientific Research at Imam Mohammad Ibn Saud Islamic University","award":["IMSIU-DDRSP2601"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["IMSIU-DDRSP2601"]}]},{"award":["IMSIU-DDRSP2601"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["IMSIU-DDRSP2601"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/05gxjyb39","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Molecules"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Peganum harmala L. is a xerophytic medicinal and aromatic plant of considerable ethnopharmacological importance, characterized by a rich diversity of \u03b2-carboline alkaloids, phenolic compounds, and essential oil constituents. Despite increasing scientific interest, current knowledge remains fragmented across phytochemistry, essential oils, extraction technologies, biological activities, and safety assessments. This review provides an integrated overview of the essential oil composition, extraction methods, analytical characterization, biological properties, toxicological considerations, and emerging applications of P. harmala. Particular emphasis is given to organ-specific chemical variability, geographical and environmental influences on volatile profiles, and the importance of standardized chemical characterization for reliable bioactivity evaluation. Conventional extraction methods, including hydrodistillation and steam distillation, are critically compared with emerging green technologies such as ultrasound-assisted, microwave-assisted, and supercritical CO2 extraction. Advanced analytical tools, including GC-MS, LC-MS\/MS, NMR, and chemometric approaches, are highlighted for comprehensive phytochemical profiling. Reported biological activities include antimicrobial, antifungal, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic, anticancer, and agricultural effects, although their translation requires rigorous chemical standardization, mechanistic validation, and safety evaluation. Overall, this review emphasizes that the sustainable development of P. harmala should rely on quality-by-design strategies integrating botanical authentication, chemotyping, green extraction, and regulatory-oriented toxicological assessment.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules31183243","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,14]],"date-time":"2026-09-14T09:34:01Z","timestamp":1789378441000},"page":"3243","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Peganum harmala L.: Essential Oil Composition, Extraction Technologies, Biological Activities and Emerging Applications"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"31","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0001-1855-1690","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kawthar El","family":"Ahmadi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Engineering Sciences and Applications, National School of Applied Sciences of Al Hoceima, Abdelmalek Ess\u00e2adi University, Al-Hoceima 32000, Morocco"},{"name":"Department of Chemistry, Biochemistry and Physics, Universit\u00e9 du Qu\u00e9bec \u00e0 Trois-Rivi\u00e8res, Trois-Rivi\u00e8res, QC G8Z 4M3, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"software","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"resources","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-original-draft","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"visualization","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"given":"Khadija","family":"Haboubi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Engineering Sciences and Applications, National School of Applied Sciences of Al Hoceima, Abdelmalek Ess\u00e2adi University, Al-Hoceima 32000, Morocco"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"validation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"supervision","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"given":"Sofia","family":"Zazouli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Molecular Chemistry, Materials and Catalysis Laboratory, Faculty of Sciences and Techniques, Sultan Moulay Slimane University, B.P. 523, Beni-Mellal 23000, Morocco"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"resources","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"data-curation","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0007-9407-7576","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Oussama","family":"Khibech","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Applied and Environmental Chemistry (LCAE), Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences, Mohammed Premier University, Oujda 60000, 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Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5658-9382","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Joe Miantezila","family":"Basilua","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biostatistics and Mathematics, Faculty of Pharmacy, Paris Cit\u00e9 University, 4, Avenue de l\u2019Observatoire, 75006 Paris, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"given":"Phuong","family":"Nguyen-Tri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemistry, Biochemistry and Physics, Universit\u00e9 du Qu\u00e9bec \u00e0 Trois-Rivi\u00e8res, Trois-Rivi\u00e8res, QC G8Z 4M3, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"supervision","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"validation","vocabulary":"credit"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jep.2017.03.049","article-title":"A Review on Traditional Uses, Phytochemistry, Pharmacology, Pharmacokinetics and Toxicology of the Genus Peganum","volume":"203","author":"Li","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. 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