{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,23]],"date-time":"2026-09-23T10:05:06Z","timestamp":1790157906279,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":166,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"19","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,23]],"date-time":"2026-09-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1790121600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Molecules"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Interest in using foods to stimulate endogenous glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) has outpaced evidence that transient postprandial increases translate into meaningful physiological outcomes. This review critically examines how food processing and matrix architecture interact with digestion and microbial metabolism to determine the identity, timing, intestinal location, and epithelial accessibility of GLP-1-stimulating ligands. PubMed\/MEDLINE, Web of Science Core Collection, BIOSIS Citation Index, and Scopus were searched for the relevant literature. Evidence from cellular systems, organoids, perfused intestines, animal models, and human studies indicates that sugars, amino acids, peptides, fatty acids, monoacylglycerols, bile acids, and microbial metabolites engage distinct nutrient-sensing pathways. However, GLP-1 responses depend not only on chemical composition but also on cellular integrity, particle size, viscosity, starch organization, emulsion structure, protein processing, fermentation, gastric emptying, and the site of intestinal release. These factors can modify the magnitude and kinetics of GLP-1 exposure, although effects vary considerably with material, dose, comparator, population, and experimental model. Whey-containing preloads provide the most consistent acute human evidence, whereas findings for fibres, emulsions, phytochemicals, fermented foods, and controlled-release approaches remain heterogeneous. Importantly, increases in circulating GLP-1 do not consistently coincide with reduced appetite or energy intake, improved glycaemia, or sustained changes in body weight. Food-induced GLP-1 secretion, reduced degradation through dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibition, and direct GLP-1 receptor agonism therefore represent distinct biological mechanisms. Overall, food structure can modestly and context-dependently modulate endogenous GLP-1 exposure, but current evidence does not support physiological or therapeutic equivalence with pharmacological GLP-1 receptor agonists.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules31193375","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,23]],"date-time":"2026-09-23T09:20:46Z","timestamp":1790155246000},"page":"3375","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["From Food Structure to L-Cell Exposure: How Processing and Digestion Shape Endogenous GLP-1 Responses"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"31","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0006-3112-0656","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Roko","family":"\u0160anti\u0107","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pathophysiology, University of Split School of Medicine, \u0160oltanska 2A, 21000 Split, Croatia"},{"name":"Laboratory for Cardiometabolic Research, University of Split School of Medicine, Soltanska 2A, 21000 Split, Croatia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9696-3359","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marko","family":"Kumri\u0107","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pathophysiology, University of Split School of Medicine, \u0160oltanska 2A, 21000 Split, Croatia"},{"name":"Laboratory for Cardiometabolic Research, University of Split School of Medicine, Soltanska 2A, 21000 Split, Croatia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0001-1179-2029","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tina","family":"Ti\u010dinovi\u0107 Kurir","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pathophysiology, University of Split School of Medicine, \u0160oltanska 2A, 21000 Split, Croatia"},{"name":"Department of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolic Diseases, University Hospital of Split, Spinciceva 1, 21000 Split, Croatia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7018-4947","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Doris","family":"Ru\u0161i\u0107","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacy, University of Split School of Medicine, Soltanska 2A, 21000 Split, Croatia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1634-0635","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jo\u0161ko","family":"Bo\u017ei\u0107","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pathophysiology, University of Split School of Medicine, \u0160oltanska 2A, 21000 Split, Croatia"},{"name":"Laboratory for Cardiometabolic Research, University of Split School of Medicine, Soltanska 2A, 21000 Split, Croatia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1409","DOI":"10.1152\/physrev.00034.2006","article-title":"The Physiology of Glucagon-like Peptide 1","volume":"87","author":"Holst","year":"2007","journal-title":"Physiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"72","DOI":"10.1016\/j.molmet.2019.09.010","article-title":"Glucagon-like Peptide 1 (GLP-1)","volume":"30","author":"Finan","year":"2019","journal-title":"Mol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2131","DOI":"10.1053\/j.gastro.2007.03.054","article-title":"Biology of Incretins: GLP-1 and GIP","volume":"132","author":"Baggio","year":"2007","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2478","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2022.05.007","article-title":"An Inter-Organ Neural Circuit for Appetite Suppression","volume":"185","author":"Zhang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"599","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajcnut.2024.01.007","article-title":"Dietary Impact on Fasting and Stimulated GLP-1 Secretion in Different Metabolic Conditions\u2014A Narrative Review","volume":"119","author":"Huber","year":"2024","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.1186\/s12986-016-0153-3","article-title":"Nutritional Modulation of Endogenous Glucagon-like Peptide-1 Secretion: A Review","volume":"13","author":"Bodnaruc","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nutr. Metab."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5173","DOI":"10.1111\/1541-4337.12808","article-title":"Slow Digestion-oriented Dietary Strategy to Sustain the Secretion of GLP-1 for Improved Glucose Homeostasis","volume":"20","author":"Qin","year":"2021","journal-title":"Compr. Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"De Jong, J.C.B.C., Lentjes, M.G.W., Pietersma, K.F., Pasman, W.J., Wopereis, S., and Hoevenaars, F.P.M. (2026). Dietary Fibers to Boost Endogenous GLP-1 Secretion and Satiety: A Scoping Review. Front. Endocrinol., 17.","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2026.1880500"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"259","DOI":"10.1017\/S0954422421000019","article-title":"Glucagon-like Peptide-1 Regulation by Food Proteins and Protein Hydrolysates","volume":"34","author":"Blay","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nutr. Res. Rev."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"\u0160anti\u0107, R., Martinovi\u0107, L., Pavlovi\u0107, N., Ru\u0161i\u0107, D., Kumri\u0107, M., Martinovi\u0107, D., Ti\u010dinovi\u0107 Kurir, T., and Bo\u017ei\u0107, J. (2026). Lean Mass and Musculoskeletal Preservation in GLP-1-Based Obesity Treatment: Nutrition, Exercise, Supplementation, and Monitoring Strategies. Metabolites, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/metabo16060364"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1126","DOI":"10.2337\/diab.44.9.1126","article-title":"Both Subcutaneously and Intravenously Administered Glucagon-Like Peptide I Are Rapidly Degraded From the NH2-Terminus in Type II Diabetic Patients and in Healthy Subjects","volume":"44","author":"Deacon","year":"1995","journal-title":"Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"220","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2002-021053","article-title":"Similar Elimination Rates of Glucagon-Like Peptide-1 in Obese Type 2 Diabetic Patients and Healthy Subjects","volume":"88","author":"Krarup","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_13","first-page":"952","article-title":"Degradation of Glucagon-like Peptide-1 by Human Plasma In Vitro Yields an N-Terminally Truncated Peptide That Is a Major Endogenous Metabolite in Vivo","volume":"80","author":"Deacon","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cui, S., Kong, H., Tian, Y., Li, D., Li, C., Ban, X., Gu, Z., and Li, Z. (2026). The relationship between starch digestion and glucagon-like peptide-1 secretion: Implications for functional food design to improve glycemic control. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr., 1\u201314. Epub ahead of print.","DOI":"10.1080\/10408398.2026.2691225"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, X., Chen, H., Xu, Y., Xu, Q., Cui, H., and Liu, F. (2026). The Collapse of the Food Matrix: How Ultra-Processed Foods Impact Satiety and Metabolism by Altering Physical Structure beyond Nutrient Composition. Front. Nutr., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnut.2026.1737280"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lu, V.B., Gribble, F.M., and Reimann, F. (2021). Nutrient-Induced Cellular Mechanisms of Gut Hormone Secretion. Nutrients, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu13030883"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1459","DOI":"10.1038\/s42255-025-01309-7","article-title":"Upper-Gastrointestinal Tract Metabolite Profile Regulates Glycaemic and Satiety Responses to Meals with Contrasting Structure: A Pilot Study","volume":"7","author":"Cai","year":"2025","journal-title":"Nat. Metab."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"319","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/nqz285","article-title":"Increasing Oat \u03b2-Glucan Viscosity in a Breakfast Meal Slows Gastric Emptying and Reduces Glycemic and Insulinemic Responses but Has No Effect on Appetite, Food Intake, or Plasma Ghrelin and PYY Responses in Healthy Humans: A Randomized, Placebo-Controlled, Crossover Trial","volume":"111","author":"Wolever","year":"2020","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1186\/s12986-024-00789-w","article-title":"The Acute Effect of a \u03b2-Glucan-Enriched Oat Bread on Gastric Emptying, GLP-1 Response, and Postprandial Glycaemia and Insulinemia: A Randomised Crossover Trial in Healthy Adults","volume":"21","author":"Revheim","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nutr. Metab."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"997","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/nqab116","article-title":"Emulsion Acid Colloidal Stability and Droplet Crystallinity Modulate Postprandial Gastric Emptying and Short-Term Satiety: A Randomized, Double-Blinded, Crossover, Controlled Trial in Healthy Adult Males","volume":"114","author":"Hamad","year":"2021","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1186\/s41073-019-0064-8","article-title":"SANRA\u2014A Scale for the Quality Assessment of Narrative Review Articles","volume":"4","author":"Baethge","year":"2019","journal-title":"Res. Integr. Peer Rev."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-physiol-021115-105439","article-title":"Enteroendocrine Cells: Chemosensors in the Intestinal Epithelium","volume":"78","author":"Gribble","year":"2016","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2362.1992.tb01464.x","article-title":"Glucagon-like Peptide-1 Cells in the Gastrointestinal Tract and Pancreas of Rat, Pig and Man","volume":"22","author":"Eissele","year":"1992","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1016\/S0167-0115(03)00125-3","article-title":"GLP-1 and GIP Are Colocalized in a Subset of Endocrine Cells in the Small Intestine","volume":"114","author":"Mortensen","year":"2003","journal-title":"Regul. Pept."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"618","DOI":"10.1136\/gutjnl-2014-306834","article-title":"Mechanisms of Activation of Mouse and Human Enteroendocrine Cells by Nutrients","volume":"64","author":"Symonds","year":"2015","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"909","DOI":"10.1038\/s41556-018-0143-y","article-title":"Enteroendocrine Cells Switch Hormone Expression along the Crypt-to-Villus BMP Signalling Gradient","volume":"20","author":"Beumer","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1291","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2020.04.036","article-title":"High-Resolution mRNA and Secretome Atlas of Human Enteroendocrine Cells","volume":"181","author":"Beumer","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7751","DOI":"10.1113\/JP287463","article-title":"Single-cell Transcriptomics of Human Organoid-derived Enteroendocrine Cell Populations from the Small Intestine","volume":"603","author":"Smith","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2144","DOI":"10.2337\/db17-0058","article-title":"Mechanisms Controlling Glucose-Induced GLP-1 Secretion in Human Small Intestine","volume":"66","author":"Sun","year":"2017","journal-title":"Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"G53","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpgi.00346.2017","article-title":"The Impact of Short-Chain Fatty Acids on GLP-1 and PYY Secretion from the Isolated Perfused Rat Colon","volume":"315","author":"Christiansen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol.-Gastrointest. Liver Physiol."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1744","DOI":"10.1136\/gutjnl-2014-307913","article-title":"Effects of Targeted Delivery of Propionate to the Human Colon on Appetite Regulation, Body Weight Maintenance and Adiposity in Overweight Adults","volume":"64","author":"Chambers","year":"2015","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101470","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajcnut.2026.101470","article-title":"Small Intestinal Compared with Colonic Short-Chain Fatty Acid Delivery Drives Distinct Systemic Concentrations and Endocrine Responses in Humans: A Randomized, Crossover Trial","volume":"124","author":"Rosseel","year":"2026","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"725","DOI":"10.3945\/ajcn.117.157248","article-title":"Duodenal and Ileal Glucose Infusions Differentially Alter Gastrointestinal Peptides, Appetite Response, and Food Intake: A Tube Feeding Study","volume":"106","author":"Poppitt","year":"2017","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.1038\/ijo.2016.196","article-title":"Small Intestinal Protein Infusion in Humans: Evidence for a Location-Specific Gradient in Intestinal Feedback on Food Intake and GI Peptide Release","volume":"41","author":"Ripken","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Obes."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1042\/BST20241062","article-title":"Understanding the Release Mechanisms and Secretion Patterns for Glucagon-like Peptide-1 Using the Isolated Perfused Intestine as a Model","volume":"53","author":"Galsgaard","year":"2025","journal-title":"Biochem. Soc. Trans."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3244","DOI":"10.1210\/en.2003-0143","article-title":"Muscarinic Receptors Control Glucagon-Like Peptide 1 Secretion by Human Endocrine L Cells","volume":"144","author":"Anini","year":"2003","journal-title":"Endocrinology"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"671","DOI":"10.2337\/db23-0848","article-title":"In Vivo Inhibition of Dipeptidyl Peptidase 4 Allows Measurement of GLP-1 Secretion in Mice","volume":"73","author":"Smits","year":"2024","journal-title":"Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1113","DOI":"10.1039\/C3FO60702J","article-title":"A Standardised Static In Vitro Digestion Method Suitable for Food\u2014An International Consensus","volume":"5","author":"Minekus","year":"2014","journal-title":"Food Funct."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"991","DOI":"10.1038\/s41596-018-0119-1","article-title":"INFOGEST Static In Vitro Simulation of Gastrointestinal Food Digestion","volume":"14","author":"Brodkorb","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Protoc."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"341","DOI":"10.1126\/science.adl1460","article-title":"Description and Functional Validation of Human Enteroendocrine Cell Sensors","volume":"386","author":"Beumer","year":"2024","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jfoodeng.2015.04.012","article-title":"Influence of Spelt Flour Addition on Properties of Extruded Products Based on Corn Grits","volume":"172","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Food Eng."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zi\u0119ba, T., Soli\u0144ska, D., Gryszkin, A., Kapelko-\u017beberska, M., Raszewski, B., A\u010dkar, \u0110., Babi\u0107, J., Mili\u010devi\u0107, B., and Jozinovi\u0107, A. (2021). Potato Starch Extrusion and Roasting with Apple Distillery Wastewater as a New Method for Resistant Starch Production. Appl. Sci., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/app11199169"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jenssen, M., Sone, I., Grasso, F., Turrini, F., Tardanico, F., Atanasio, G.D.N., Paz, D.M., Sobrado, R.V., Mart\u00ednez, M.A., and Boggia, R. (2025). Valorization of Aquaculture Side Streams from Sea Bream and Sea Bass by Enzymatic Hydrolysis and Fractionation: Chemical and Biological Insights. Front. Nutr., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnut.2025.1663294"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Olvera-Rosales, L.B., P\u00e9rez-Escalante, E., Casta\u00f1eda-Ovando, A., Contreras-L\u00f3pez, E., Cruz-Guerrero, A.E., Regal-L\u00f3pez, P., Cardelle-Cobas, A., and Gonz\u00e1lez-Olivares, L.G. (2023). ACE-Inhibitory Activity of Whey Proteins Fractions Derived of Fermentation by Lacticaseibacillus Rhamnosus GG and Streptococcus Thermophilus SY-102. Foods, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/foods12122416"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2688","DOI":"10.1007\/s00125-013-3037-3","article-title":"Oligopeptides Stimulate Glucagon-like Peptide-1 Secretion in Mice through Proton-Coupled Uptake and the Calcium-Sensing Receptor","volume":"56","author":"Diakogiannaki","year":"2013","journal-title":"Diabetologia"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e14056","DOI":"10.14814\/phy2.14056","article-title":"Peptone-mediated Glucagon-like Peptide-1 Secretion Depends on Intestinal Absorption and Activation of Basolaterally Located Calcium-Sensing Receptors","volume":"7","author":"Modvig","year":"2019","journal-title":"Physiol. Rep."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3961","DOI":"10.1210\/en.2015-1321","article-title":"Bile Acids Trigger GLP-1 Release Predominantly by Accessing Basolaterally Located G Protein\u2013Coupled Bile Acid Receptors","volume":"156","author":"Brighton","year":"2015","journal-title":"Endocrinology"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.2337\/db11-1029","article-title":"Na+-D-Glucose Cotransporter SGLT1 Is Pivotal for Intestinal Glucose Absorption and Glucose-Dependent Incretin Secretion","volume":"61","author":"Gorboulev","year":"2012","journal-title":"Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"370","DOI":"10.2337\/db14-0807","article-title":"Molecular Mechanisms of Glucose-Stimulated GLP-1 Secretion From Perfused Rat Small Intestine","volume":"64","author":"Kuhre","year":"2015","journal-title":"Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"524","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clnu.2011.01.007","article-title":"The Functional Involvement of Gut-Expressed Sweet Taste Receptors in Glucose-Stimulated Secretion of Glucagon-like Peptide-1 (GLP-1) and Peptide YY (PYY)","volume":"30","author":"Steinert","year":"2011","journal-title":"Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Saltiel, M., Kuhre, R., Christiansen, C., Eliasen, R., Conde-Frieboes, K., Rosenkilde, M., and Holst, J. (2017). Sweet Taste Receptor Activation in the Gut Is of Limited Importance for Glucose-Stimulated GLP-1 and GIP Secretion. Nutrients, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu9040418"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, R., Noronha, J.C., Khan, T.A., McGlynn, N., Back, S., Grant, S.M., Kendall, C.W.C., and Sievenpiper, J.L. (2023). The Effect of Non-Nutritive Sweetened Beverages on Postprandial Glycemic and Endocrine Responses: A Systematic Review and Network Meta-Analysis. Nutrients, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu15041050"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1228","DOI":"10.1093\/jn\/nxac026","article-title":"The Role of D-Allulose and Erythritol on the Activity of the Gut Sweet Taste Receptor and Gastrointestinal Satiation Hormone Release in Humans: A Randomized, Controlled Trial","volume":"152","author":"Teysseire","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"bqaf002","DOI":"10.1210\/endocr\/bqaf002","article-title":"Intestinal Distension Induced by Luminal D-Allulose Promotes GLP-1 Secretion in Male Rats","volume":"166","author":"Mizuma","year":"2025","journal-title":"Endocrinology"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1086","DOI":"10.2337\/db25-1134","article-title":"Gut-Derived GLP-1 Released by Rare Sugar D-Allulose Cooperates With Insulin to Activate Left-Sided Vagal Afferents and Enhance Insulin Sensitivity","volume":"75","author":"Ohbayashi","year":"2026","journal-title":"Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"405","DOI":"10.1210\/en.2010-0956","article-title":"Glutamine Triggers and Potentiates Glucagon-Like Peptide-1 Secretion by Raising Cytosolic Ca2+ and cAMP","volume":"152","author":"Tolhurst","year":"2011","journal-title":"Endocrinology"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106","DOI":"10.3945\/ajcn.2008.26362","article-title":"Oral Glutamine Increases Circulating Glucagon-like Peptide 1, Glucagon, and Insulin Concentrations in Lean, Obese, and Type 2 Diabetic Subjects","volume":"89","author":"Greenfield","year":"2009","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1721","DOI":"10.1002\/oby.22323","article-title":"L-Arginine Increases Postprandial Circulating GLP-1 and PYY Levels in Humans","volume":"26","author":"Amin","year":"2018","journal-title":"Obesity"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"599","DOI":"10.1111\/dom.12845","article-title":"Robust GLP-1 Secretion by Basic L-amino Acids Does Not Require the GPRC6A Receptor","volume":"19","author":"Clemmensen","year":"2017","journal-title":"Diabetes Obes. Metab."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E874","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpendo.00026.2021","article-title":"Amino Acids Differ in Their Capacity to Stimulate GLP-1 Release from the Perfused Rat Small Intestine and Stimulate Secretion by Different Sensing Mechanisms","volume":"320","author":"Modvig","year":"2021","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol.-Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1038\/s41387-024-00303-4","article-title":"L-Valine Is a Powerful Stimulator of GLP-1 Secretion in Rodents and Stimulates Secretion through ATP-Sensitive Potassium Channels and Voltage-Gated Calcium Channels","volume":"14","author":"Modvig","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nutr. Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1807","DOI":"10.1007\/s00125-014-3305-x","article-title":"Incretin, Insulinotropic and Glucose-Lowering Effects of Whey Protein Pre-Load in Type 2 Diabetes: A Randomised Clinical Trial","volume":"57","author":"Jakubowicz","year":"2014","journal-title":"Diabetologia"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1600","DOI":"10.2337\/dc09-0723","article-title":"Effects of a Protein Preload on Gastric Emptying, Glycemia, and Gut Hormones After a Carbohydrate Meal in Diet-Controlled Type 2 Diabetes","volume":"32","author":"Ma","year":"2009","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10316","DOI":"10.1039\/D4FO01290A","article-title":"Pea Protein Hydrolysate Stimulates GLP-1 Secretion in NCI-H716 Cells via Simultaneously Activating the Sensing Receptors CaSR and PepT1","volume":"15","author":"Zhang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Food Funct."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141569","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2024.141569","article-title":"Targeted Discovery of Pea Protein-Derived GLP-1-Secreting Peptides by CaSR Activation-Based Molecular Docking and Their Digestive Stability","volume":"464","author":"Zhang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16420","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.jafc.5c05148","article-title":"A Lysozyme-Derived Peptide Induces GLP-1 Secretion in Mouse Jejunal Organoids and Modulates Glycemia in Rats","volume":"73","author":"Miralles","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Agric. Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5301","DOI":"10.1039\/D5FO01394A","article-title":"Milk Peptides Found in Human Jejunum Induce Enteroendocrine Hormone Secretion and Inhibit DPP-IV","volume":"16","author":"Recio","year":"2025","journal-title":"Food Funct."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"701","DOI":"10.1039\/C6FO01411A","article-title":"Investigation into the Bioavailability of Milk Protein-Derived Peptides with Dipeptidyl-Peptidase IV Inhibitory Activity Using Caco-2 Cell Monolayers","volume":"8","author":"Lacroix","year":"2017","journal-title":"Food Funct."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.7603\/s40681-015-0014-9","article-title":"The Development of Bioactive Peptides from Dietary Proteins as a Dipeptidyl Peptidase IV Inhibitor for the Management of Type 2 Diabetes","volume":"5","author":"Jao","year":"2015","journal-title":"BioMedicine"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2826","DOI":"10.1210\/en.2018-00261","article-title":"Free Fatty Acid Receptors in Enteroendocrine Cells","volume":"159","author":"Lu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Endocrinology"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"R524","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpregu.00039.2004","article-title":"Effects of Intraduodenal Fatty Acids on Appetite, Antropyloroduodenal Motility, and Plasma CCK and GLP-1 in Humans Vary with Their Chain Length","volume":"287","author":"Feltrin","year":"2004","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol.-Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E1409","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2011-0647","article-title":"2-Oleoyl Glycerol Is a GPR119 Agonist and Signals GLP-1 Release in Humans","volume":"96","author":"Hansen","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"548","DOI":"10.3945\/ajcn.115.106799","article-title":"The 2-Monoacylglycerol Moiety of Dietary Fat Appears to Be Responsible for the Fat-Induced Release of GLP-1 in Humans","volume":"102","author":"Hansen","year":"2015","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1058","DOI":"10.2337\/db08-1237","article-title":"GPR119 Is Essential for Oleoylethanolamide-Induced Glucagon-Like Peptide-1 Secretion From the Intestinal Enteroendocrine L-Cell","volume":"58","author":"Lauffer","year":"2009","journal-title":"Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2475","DOI":"10.1007\/s00125-017-4420-2","article-title":"Chylomicrons Stimulate Incretin Secretion in Mouse and Human Cells","volume":"60","author":"Psichas","year":"2017","journal-title":"Diabetologia"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7629","DOI":"10.1038\/ncomms8629","article-title":"Farnesoid X Receptor Inhibits Glucagon-like Peptide-1 Production by Enteroendocrine L Cells","volume":"6","author":"Trabelsi","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbrc.2016.04.149","article-title":"A Bitter Pill for Type 2 Diabetes? The Activation of Bitter Taste Receptor TAS2R38 Can Stimulate GLP-1 Release from Enteroendocrine L-Cells","volume":"475","author":"Pham","year":"2016","journal-title":"Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2870","DOI":"10.1210\/clinem\/dgac182","article-title":"Quinine Effects on Gut and Pancreatic Hormones and Antropyloroduodenal Pressures in Humans\u2013Role of Delivery Site and Sex","volume":"107","author":"Rezaie","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"727","DOI":"10.1007\/s00125-024-06344-9","article-title":"Dose-Related Effects of Intraduodenal Quinine on Plasma Glucose, Glucoregulatory Hormones and Gastric Emptying of a Nutrient Drink, and Energy Intake, in Men with Type 2 Diabetes: A Double-Blind, Randomised, Crossover Study","volume":"68","author":"Bitarafan","year":"2025","journal-title":"Diabetologia"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"306","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbrc.2015.10.107","article-title":"GLP-1 Secretion Is Stimulated by 1,10-Phenanthroline via Colocalized T2R5 Signal Transduction in Human Enteroendocrine L Cell","volume":"468","author":"Park","year":"2015","journal-title":"Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116192","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bcp.2024.116192","article-title":"Bitter Taste Receptors: Key Target to Understand the Effects of Polyphenols on Glucose and Body Weight Homeostasis. Pathophysiological and Pharmacological Implications","volume":"228","author":"Moreno","year":"2024","journal-title":"Biochem. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yanagimoto, A., Matsui, Y., Yamaguchi, T., Hibi, M., Kobayashi, S., and Osaki, N. (2022). Effects of Ingesting Both Catechins and Chlorogenic Acids on Glucose, Incretin, and Insulin Sensitivity in Healthy Men: A Randomized, Double-Blinded, Placebo-Controlled Crossover Trial. Nutrients, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu14235063"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Martin, A.M., Sun, E.W., Rogers, G.B., and Keating, D.J. (2019). The Influence of the Gut Microbiome on Host Metabolism Through the Regulation of Gut Hormone Release. Front. Physiol., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fphys.2019.00428"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"364","DOI":"10.2337\/db11-1019","article-title":"Short-Chain Fatty Acids Stimulate Glucagon-Like Peptide-1 Secretion via the G-Protein\u2013Coupled Receptor FFAR2","volume":"61","author":"Tolhurst","year":"2012","journal-title":"Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"424","DOI":"10.1038\/ijo.2014.153","article-title":"The Short Chain Fatty Acid Propionate Stimulates GLP-1 and PYY Secretion via Free Fatty Acid Receptor 2 in Rodents","volume":"39","author":"Psichas","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Obes."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107414","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jff.2026.107414","article-title":"Satiety Hormone Secretion Induced by a Carob-Based Formulation (Csat\u00ae) after Simulated Gastrointestinal Digestion and Colonic Fermentation in STC-1 Cells","volume":"143","author":"Moreno","year":"2026","journal-title":"J. Funct. Foods"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1202","DOI":"10.1016\/j.celrep.2014.10.032","article-title":"Bacterial Metabolite Indole Modulates Incretin Secretion from Intestinal Enteroendocrine L Cells","volume":"9","author":"Chimerel","year":"2014","journal-title":"Cell Rep."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Masse, K.E., and Lu, V.B. (2023). Short-Chain Fatty Acids, Secondary Bile Acids and Indoles: Gut Microbial Metabolites with Effects on Enteroendocrine Cell Function and Their Potential as Therapies for Metabolic Disease. Front. Endocrinol., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2023.1169624"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"477","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajcnut.2022.12.008","article-title":"Enhanced Secretion of Satiety-Promoting Gut Hormones in Healthy Humans after Consumption of White Bread Enriched with Cellular Chickpea Flour: A Randomized Crossover Study","volume":"117","author":"Bajka","year":"2023","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4548","DOI":"10.1039\/D5FO00348B","article-title":"Impact of Flour Particle Size and Origin on the Bread Structure and the Postprandial Glycemic, Insulinemic and Appetite Responses in Healthy Adults","volume":"16","author":"Kanata","year":"2025","journal-title":"Food Funct."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"G239","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpgi.00005.2017","article-title":"Oatmeal Particle Size Alters Glycemic Index but Not as a Function of Gastric Emptying Rate","volume":"313","author":"Mackie","year":"2017","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol.-Gastrointest. Liver Physiol."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107544","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodhyd.2022.107544","article-title":"Creating Texturally Tuneable, Low Calorie and Palatable Noodle-like Food Assemblies via Microfluidics","volume":"127","author":"Lin","year":"2022","journal-title":"Food Hydrocoll."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"461","DOI":"10.3945\/jn.108.099945","article-title":"Viscosity of Oat Bran-Enriched Beverages Influences Gastrointestinal Hormonal Responses in Healthy Humans","volume":"139","author":"Juvonen","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11928","DOI":"10.1021\/jf303083r","article-title":"Resistant Starch and Pullulan Reduce Postprandial Glucose, Insulin, and GLP-1, but Have No Effect on Satiety in Healthy Humans","volume":"60","author":"Klosterbuer","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Agric. Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1429","DOI":"10.1017\/S0007114513000731","article-title":"Endogenous Plasma Glucagon-like Peptide-1 Following Acute Dietary Fibre Consumption","volume":"110","author":"Bodinham","year":"2013","journal-title":"Br. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118599","DOI":"10.1016\/j.carbpol.2021.118599","article-title":"Dietary Starch Is Weight Reducing When Distally Digested in the Small Intestine","volume":"273","author":"Lim","year":"2021","journal-title":"Carbohydr. Polym."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121105","DOI":"10.1016\/j.carbpol.2023.121105","article-title":"Structural Changes of Thermally Treated Starch during Digestion and the Impact on Postprandial Glucose Homeostasis","volume":"318","author":"Lu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Carbohydr. Polym."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"G1607","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpgi.00452.2006","article-title":"Enhancement of Intragastric Acid Stability of a Fat Emulsion Meal Delays Gastric Emptying and Increases Cholecystokinin Release and Gallbladder Contraction","volume":"292","author":"Marciani","year":"2007","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol.-Gastrointest. Liver Physiol."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2295","DOI":"10.1093\/jn\/nxaa164","article-title":"Emulsion Droplet Crystallinity Attenuates Short-Term Satiety in Healthy Adult Males: A Randomized, Double-Blinded, Crossover, Acute Meal Study","volume":"150","author":"Hamad","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_100","first-page":"1730","article-title":"Effects of Physical Form of \u03b2-Lactoglobulin and Calcium Ingestion on GLP-1 Secretion, Gastric Emptying and Energy Intake in Humans: A Randomised Crossover Trial","volume":"131","author":"Watkins","year":"2024","journal-title":"Br. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1007\/s00394-004-0448-4","article-title":"Gastric Emptying, Gastric Secretion and Enterogastrone Response after Administration of Milk Proteins or Their Peptide Hydrolysates in Humans","volume":"43","author":"Calbet","year":"2004","journal-title":"Eur. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4702","DOI":"10.1039\/C8FO01059E","article-title":"Stimulation of CCK and GLP-1 Secretion and Expression in STC-1 Cells by Human Jejunal Contents and In Vitro Gastrointestinal Digests from Casein and Whey Proteins","volume":"9","author":"Gaudichon","year":"2018","journal-title":"Food Funct."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"303","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2018.01.107","article-title":"A Casein Hydrolysate Increases GLP-1 Secretion and Reduces Food Intake","volume":"252","author":"Bruen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"550","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/nqy019","article-title":"A Small Dose of Whey Protein Co-Ingested with Mixed-Macronutrient Breakfast and Lunch Meals Improves Postprandial Glycemia and Suppresses Appetite in Men with Type 2 Diabetes: A Randomized Controlled Trial","volume":"107","author":"King","year":"2018","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e70195","DOI":"10.1002\/mnfr.70195","article-title":"Randomized Controlled Trial: Effects of a Bitter-Tasting Pea Protein Hydrolysate Intervention With Low Degree of Hydrolyzation on Energy Intake in Moderately Overweight Male Subjects","volume":"69","author":"Gradl","year":"2025","journal-title":"Mol. Nutr. Food Res."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"423","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2018.10.123","article-title":"Casein Materials Show Different Digestion Patterns Using an In Vitro Gastrointestinal Model and Different Release of Glucagon-like Peptide-1 by Enteroendocrine GLUTag Cells","volume":"277","author":"Komatsu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2018.05.062","article-title":"Irish Cheddar Cheese Increases Glucagon-like Peptide-1 Secretion In Vitro but Bioactivity Is Lost during Gut Transit","volume":"265","author":"Kondrashina","year":"2018","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_108","first-page":"102215","article-title":"Assessment of the Effects of Soy Varieties and Processing on Protein Quality, Digestibility and Intestinal Bioactivity (DPP-IV Inhibition and Total GLP-1 Release)","volume":"23","author":"Accardo","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Agric. Food Res."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"662","DOI":"10.1111\/apt.13749","article-title":"Randomised Clinical Study: Inulin Short-chain Fatty Acid Esters for Targeted Delivery of Short-chain Fatty Acids to the Human Colon","volume":"44","author":"Polyviou","year":"2016","journal-title":"Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"38","DOI":"10.1016\/j.peptides.2015.10.008","article-title":"The Effect of Encapsulated Glutamine on Gut Peptide Secretion in Human Volunteers","volume":"77","author":"Meek","year":"2016","journal-title":"Peptides"},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alleleyn, A.M.E., Van Avesaat, M., Ripken, D., Bleiel, S.B., Keszthelyi, D., Wilms, E., Troost, F.J., Hendriks, H.F.J., and Masclee, A.A.M. (2018). The Effect of an Encapsulated Nutrient Mixture on Food Intake and Satiety: A Double-Blind Randomized Cross-Over Proof of Concept Study. Nutrients, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu10111787"},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2100978","DOI":"10.1002\/mnfr.202100978","article-title":"Colonic Delivery of \u03b1-Linolenic Acid by an Advanced Nutrient Delivery System Prolongs Glucagon-Like Peptide-1 Secretion and Inhibits Food Intake in Mice","volume":"66","author":"Kamakura","year":"2022","journal-title":"Mol. Nutr. Food Res."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3233","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2018-02661","article-title":"Augmented GLP-1 Secretion as Seen After Gastric Bypass May Be Obtained by Delaying Carbohydrate Digestion","volume":"104","author":"Martinussen","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"146439","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2025.146439","article-title":"Structured Design Colon-Targeted Nanoparticles with Different Distribution Ratios of Lecithin inside and Outside Starch Helical Cavity for Enhancing GLP-1 Secretion","volume":"495","author":"Yu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nut.2018.04.001","article-title":"Effects of Sucralose on Insulin and Glucagon-like Peptide-1 Secretion in Healthy Subjects: A Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Trial","volume":"55\u201356","author":"Lertrit","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nutrition"},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26235","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M115.672097","article-title":"Isolation of Positive Modulator of Glucagon-like Peptide-1 Signaling from Trigonella Foenum-Graecum (Fenugreek) Seed","volume":"290","author":"King","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4736","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-018-38216-9","article-title":"Metabolic Phenotypes and the Gut Microbiota in Response to Dietary Resistant Starch Type 2 in Normal-Weight Subjects: A Randomized Crossover Trial","volume":"9","author":"Zhang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmet.2019.05.008","article-title":"Ultra-Processed Diets Cause Excess Calorie Intake and Weight Gain: An Inpatient Randomized Controlled Trial of Ad Libitum Food Intake","volume":"30","author":"Hall","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cell Metab."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1038\/s41387-024-00284-4","article-title":"Common Food Additive Carrageenan Inhibits Proglucagon Expression and GLP-1 Secretion by Human Enteroendocrine L-Cells","volume":"14","author":"Bhattacharyya","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nutr. Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Santic, R., Kumric, M., Pavlovic, N., and Bozic, J. (2026). Food Additive Mixtures, Glucose Metabolism, and Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus Risk: Mechanistic Insights from Epidemiology, Human Intervention Studies, and Experimental Models. Nutrients, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu18152521"},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"149","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tifs.2021.02.059","article-title":"Processed Food Classification: Conceptualisation and Challenges","volume":"112","author":"Sadler","year":"2021","journal-title":"Trends Food Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1245","DOI":"10.1038\/s41430-022-01099-1","article-title":"Ultra-Processed Foods: How Functional Is the NOVA System?","volume":"76","author":"Braesco","year":"2022","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"781","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.ijo.0801627","article-title":"The Effect of Physiological Levels of Glucagon-like Peptide-1 on Appetite, Gastric Emptying, Energy and Substrate Metabolism in Obesity","volume":"25","author":"Flint","year":"2001","journal-title":"Int. J. Obes."},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"525","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/68.3.525","article-title":"Glucagon-like Peptide 1 Increases the Period of Postprandial Satiety and Slows Gastric Emptying in Obese Men","volume":"68","author":"Gutniak","year":"1998","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"304","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.ijo.0800818","article-title":"Energy Intake and Appetite Are Suppressed by Glucagon-like Peptide-1 (GLP-1) in Obese Men","volume":"23","author":"Barkeling","year":"1999","journal-title":"Int. J. Obes."},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E981","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpendo.1997.273.5.E981","article-title":"Glucagon-like Peptide 1 Inhibition of Gastric Emptying Outweighs Its Insulinotropic Effects in Healthy Humans","volume":"273","author":"Nauck","year":"1997","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol.-Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1561","DOI":"10.2337\/db10-0474","article-title":"Rapid Tachyphylaxis of the Glucagon-Like Peptide 1\u2013Induced Deceleration of Gastric Emptying in Humans","volume":"60","author":"Nauck","year":"2011","journal-title":"Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Klementova, M., Thieme, L., Haluzik, M., Pavlovicova, R., Hill, M., Pelikanova, T., and Kahleova, H. (2019). A Plant-Based Meal Increases Gastrointestinal Hormones and Satiety More Than an Energy- and Macronutrient-Matched Processed-Meat Meal in T2D, Obese, and Healthy Men: A Three-Group Randomized Crossover Study. Nutrients, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu11010157"},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e3406","DOI":"10.1002\/dmrr.3406","article-title":"The Mediterranean Diet Increases Glucagon-like Peptide 1 and Oxyntomodulin Compared with a Vegetarian Diet in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes: A Randomized Controlled Cross-over Trial","volume":"37","author":"Tuccinardi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Diabetes Metab. Res. Rev."},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"417","DOI":"10.1530\/EJE-19-0082","article-title":"Postprandial Levels of GLP-1, GIP and Glucagon after 2 Years of Weight Loss with a Paleolithic Diet: A Randomised Controlled Trial in Healthy Obese Women","volume":"180","author":"Otten","year":"2019","journal-title":"Eur. J. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"453","DOI":"10.1007\/s00125-015-3841-z","article-title":"Meal Sequence and Glucose Excursion, Gastric Emptying and Incretin Secretion in Type 2 Diabetes: A Randomised, Controlled Crossover, Exploratory Trial","volume":"59","author":"Kuwata","year":"2016","journal-title":"Diabetologia"},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jnutbio.2013.08.012","article-title":"Mechanism of Action of Pre-Meal Consumption of Whey Protein on Glycemic Control in Young Adults","volume":"25","author":"Akhavan","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Nutr. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"930","DOI":"10.1111\/dom.13604","article-title":"A Whey\/Guar \u201cPreload\u201d Improves Postprandial Glycaemia and Glycated Haemoglobin Levels in Type 2 Diabetes: A 12-week, Single-blind, Randomized, Placebo-controlled Trial","volume":"21","author":"Watson","year":"2019","journal-title":"Diabetes Obes. Metab."},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Neeland, I.J., De Greg\u00f3rio, L.H., Zagury, R., Ahr\u00e9n, B., Neutel, J., Darimont, C., Corthesy, J., Grzywinski, Y., Perrin, E., and Von Eynatten, M. (2025). A Randomized, Placebo-Controlled, Single-Center, Crossover Study to Evaluate the Effects of Pre-Meal Whey Protein Microgel on Post-Prandial Glucometabolic and Amino Acid Response in People with Type 2 Diabetes and Overweight or Obesity. Metabolites, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/metabo15010061"},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Giezenaar, C., Lange, K., Hausken, T., Jones, K.L., Horowitz, M., Chapman, I., and Soenen, S. (2018). Acute Effects of Substitution, and Addition, of Carbohydrates and Fat to Protein on Gastric Emptying, Blood Glucose, Gut Hormones, Appetite, and Energy Intake. Nutrients, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu10101451"},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"953","DOI":"10.1038\/ejcn.2016.249","article-title":"Acute Increases in Serum Colonic Short-Chain Fatty Acids Elicited by Inulin Do Not Increase GLP-1 or PYY Responses but May Reduce Ghrelin in Lean and Overweight Humans","volume":"71","author":"Fernandes","year":"2017","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1430","DOI":"10.1002\/oby.20754","article-title":"The Impact of Oligofructose on Stimulation of Gut Hormones, Appetite Regulation and Adiposity: The Effect of Oligofructose on Appetite Regulation","volume":"22","author":"Daud","year":"2014","journal-title":"Obesity"},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108256","DOI":"10.1016\/j.appet.2025.108256","article-title":"Effect of Whole Meal Yeast-Leavened, Sourdough-Leavened and Yeast-Sourdough-Leavened Bread Consumption on Appetite, Energy Intake, and Postprandial Metabolic Responses: A Randomized, Blinded, Cross-over Study","volume":"216","author":"Chatonidi","year":"2026","journal-title":"Appetite"},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tan, D., Yao, Y., Zhou, Y., Khoo, C.M., Penseyres, L., Rytz, A., Pakkiri, L.S., Drum, C.L., Kim, J.E., and L\u00ea, K.-A. (2024). Differently Processed Low Doses of \u03b2-Glucan from Oat Bran Similarly Attenuate Postprandial Glycemic Response. Foods, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/foods13223623"},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1135","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/69.6.1135","article-title":"Differential Effects of Saturated and Monounsaturated Fatty Acids on Postprandial Lipemia and Incretin Responses in Healthy Subjects","volume":"69","author":"Thomsen","year":"1999","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2645","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clnu.2018.11.015","article-title":"Gastrointestinal Effects of Extra-Virgin Olive Oil Associated with Lower Postprandial Glycemia in Type 1 Diabetes","volume":"38","author":"Bozzetto","year":"2019","journal-title":"Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"815","DOI":"10.3945\/ajcn.2008.26807","article-title":"Effects of 1 and 3 g Cinnamon on Gastric Emptying, Satiety, and Postprandial Blood Glucose, Insulin, Glucose-Dependent Insulinotropic Polypeptide, Glucagon-like Peptide 1, and Ghrelin Concentrations in Healthy Subjects","volume":"89","author":"Hlebowicz","year":"2009","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_143","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1566","DOI":"10.1111\/bcp.13589","article-title":"Oleuropein, a Component of Extra Virgin Olive Oil, Lowers Postprandial Glycaemia in Healthy Subjects","volume":"84","author":"Carnevale","year":"2018","journal-title":"Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_144","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"729","DOI":"10.3945\/ajcn.115.113266","article-title":"Intraduodenal Infusion of a Combination of Tastants Decreases Food Intake in Humans","volume":"102","author":"Troost","year":"2015","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_145","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1827","DOI":"10.2337\/dc14-2690","article-title":"Intake of Lactobacillus reuteri Improves Incretin and Insulin Secretion in Glucose-Tolerant Humans: A Proof of Concept","volume":"38","author":"Simon","year":"2015","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_146","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3259","DOI":"10.1002\/fsn3.2816","article-title":"Consumption of Probiotic Yogurt and Vitamin D-fortified Yogurt Increases Fasting Level of GLP-1 in Obese Adults Undergoing Low-calorie Diet: A Double-blind Randomized Controlled Trial","volume":"10","author":"Hajipoor","year":"2022","journal-title":"Food Sci. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_147","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lim, J.J., Liu, Y., Lu, L.W., Sequeira, I.R., and Poppitt, S.D. (2023). No Evidence That Circulating GLP-1 or PYY Are Associated with Increased Satiety during Low Energy Diet-Induced Weight Loss: Modelling Biomarkers of Appetite. Nutrients, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu15102399"},{"key":"ref_148","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"229","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2010-0841","article-title":"Endogenous GLP-1 Regulates Postprandial Glycemia in Humans: Relative Contributions of Insulin, Glucagon, and Gastric Emptying","volume":"96","author":"Nicolaus","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_149","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2009-1503","article-title":"Endogenous Glucagon-Like Peptide-1 Slows Gastric Emptying in Healthy Subjects, Attenuating Postprandial Glycemia","volume":"95","author":"Deane","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_150","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"514","DOI":"10.3945\/ajcn.114.083246","article-title":"Effect of Glucagon-like Peptide-1 Receptor Antagonism on Appetite and Food Intake in Healthy Men","volume":"100","author":"Steinert","year":"2014","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_151","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1016\/j.appet.2014.07.009","article-title":"Initial Evidence That GLP-1 Receptor Blockade Fails to Suppress Postprandial Satiety or Promote Food Intake in Humans","volume":"82","author":"Melhorn","year":"2014","journal-title":"Appetite"},{"key":"ref_152","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2513","DOI":"10.2337\/db14-1751","article-title":"GLP-1 Response to Oral Glucose Is Reduced in Prediabetes, Screen-Detected Type 2 Diabetes, and Obesity and Influenced by Sex: The ADDITION-PRO Study","volume":"64","author":"Torekov","year":"2015","journal-title":"Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_153","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"678","DOI":"10.2337\/db07-1124","article-title":"Predictors of Incretin Concentrations in Subjects With Normal, Impaired, and Diabetic Glucose Tolerance","volume":"57","author":"Vollmer","year":"2008","journal-title":"Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_154","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2706","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2002-021873","article-title":"Incretin Secretion in Relation to Meal Size and Body Weight in Healthy Subjects and People with Type 1 and Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus","volume":"88","author":"Krarup","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_155","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI118411","article-title":"Gastric Emptying and Release of Incretin Hormones after Glucose Ingestion in Humans","volume":"97","author":"Schirra","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_156","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2062","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2005-2644","article-title":"Effects of Fat on Gastric Emptying of and the Glycemic, Insulin, and Incretin Responses to a Carbohydrate Meal in Type 2 Diabetes","volume":"91","author":"Gentilcore","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_157","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E504","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpendo.00099.2005","article-title":"Initially More Rapid Small Intestinal Glucose Delivery Increases Plasma Insulin, GIP, and GLP-1 but Does Not Improve Overall Glycemia in Healthy Subjects","volume":"289","author":"Chaikomin","year":"2005","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol.-Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_158","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"356","DOI":"10.1111\/dom.12826","article-title":"Sustained Influence of Metformin Therapy on Circulating Glucagon-like Peptide-1 Levels in Individuals with and without Type 2 Diabetes","volume":"19","author":"Preiss","year":"2017","journal-title":"Diabetes Obes. Metab."},{"key":"ref_159","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1155","DOI":"10.1111\/dom.12352","article-title":"Specificity and Sensitivity of Commercially Available Assays for Glucagon-like Peptide-1 (GLP-1): Implications for GLP-1 Measurements in Clinical Studies","volume":"16","author":"Bak","year":"2014","journal-title":"Diabetes Obes. Metab."},{"key":"ref_160","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.1530\/EC-14-0126","article-title":"Stability of Glucagon-like Peptide 1 and Glucagon in Human Plasma","volume":"4","author":"Bak","year":"2015","journal-title":"Endocr. Connect."},{"key":"ref_161","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"70","DOI":"10.1111\/j.2040-1124.2011.00141.x","article-title":"Comparison of Incretin Immunoassays with or without Plasma Extraction: Incretin Secretion in Japanese Patients with Type 2 Diabetes","volume":"3","author":"Yabe","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Diabetes Investig."},{"key":"ref_162","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1640","DOI":"10.1016\/0016-5085(93)90640-X","article-title":"Measurement of Gastric Emptying Rate of Solids by Means of a Carbon-Labeled Octanoic Acid Breath Test","volume":"104","author":"Ghoos","year":"1993","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_163","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1155","DOI":"10.1016\/S0016-5085(97)70126-4","article-title":"[13C]Octanoic Acid Breath Test for Gastric Emptying of Solids: Accuracy, Reproducibility, and Comparison with Scintigraphy","volume":"112","author":"Choi","year":"1997","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_164","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e70236","DOI":"10.1002\/cph4.70236","article-title":"The Postprandial Chronobiome in Interorgan Glucose Homeostasis","volume":"16","author":"Bozic","year":"2026","journal-title":"Compr. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_165","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"379","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2036.2012.05198.x","article-title":"The Effects of Sitagliptin on Gastric Emptying in Healthy Humans\u2014A Randomised, Controlled Study","volume":"36","author":"Stevens","year":"2012","journal-title":"Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_166","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1530\/JME-15-0293","article-title":"Peptide Production and Secretion in GLUTag, NCI-H716, and STC-1 Cells: A Comparison to Native L-Cells","volume":"56","author":"Kuhre","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Mol. Endocrinol."}],"container-title":["Molecules"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1420-3049\/31\/19\/3375\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,23]],"date-time":"2026-09-23T09:22:12Z","timestamp":1790155332000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1420-3049\/31\/19\/3375"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,23]]},"references-count":166,"journal-issue":{"issue":"19","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,10]]}},"alternative-id":["molecules31193375"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/molecules31193375","relation":{},"ISSN":["1420-3049"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1420-3049","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,23]]}}}