{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,29]],"date-time":"2026-09-29T09:01:37Z","timestamp":1790672497222,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":120,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"19","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,29]],"date-time":"2026-09-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1790640000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Jiangsu Tepin Foundation","award":["Z241922"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["Z241922"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Molecules"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Fluorescence-guided surgery (FGS) enables real-time visualization of tumor margins and microscopic residual lesions, thereby improving the completeness and precision of tumor resection. Paralleling these clinical advancements, fluorescence probes have shown significant progress in intraoperative imaging applications. Several probes approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), including indocyanine green (ICG), 5-aminolevulinic acid (5-ALA), sodium fluorescein, methylene blue (MB), pafolacianine (OTL-38), and pegulicianine (LUM015), have been widely used in various solid tumor surgeries, while Akalux received approval in Japan in 2020 for near-infrared photoimmunotherapy. Beyond these established agents, a large number of novel probes are currently undergoing clinical evaluation, with design trends shifting toward active targeting and microenvironment responsiveness. This review provides an overview of FDA-approved probes and systematically summarizes representative probes in phase I-III clinical trials, focusing on their imaging mechanisms, clinical evidence, and translational challenges.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules31193466","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,29]],"date-time":"2026-09-29T08:12:42Z","timestamp":1790669562000},"page":"3466","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Near-Infrared Fluorescence Probes for Fluorescence-Guided Surgery: Current Clinical Probes and Emerging Candidates"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"31","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0001-2595-2302","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zhuoying","family":"Kang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"International College of Pharmaceutical Innovation, Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, China"},{"name":"School of Pharmacy and Biomolecular Sciences, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, 123 St Stephen\u2019s Green, D02 YN77 Dublin, Ireland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0006-5745-4072","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Xujing","family":"Jiang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"International College of Pharmaceutical Innovation, Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, China"},{"name":"School of Pharmacy and Biomolecular Sciences, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, 123 St Stephen\u2019s Green, D02 YN77 Dublin, Ireland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Guangxuan","family":"Jin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"International College of Pharmaceutical Innovation, Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, China"},{"name":"School of Pharmacy and Biomolecular Sciences, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, 123 St Stephen\u2019s Green, D02 YN77 Dublin, Ireland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0001-5642-2646","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jue","family":"Jin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"International College of Pharmaceutical Innovation, Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, China"},{"name":"School of Pharmacy and Biomolecular Sciences, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, 123 St Stephen\u2019s Green, D02 YN77 Dublin, Ireland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yuding","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"International College of Pharmaceutical Innovation, Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ziying","family":"Wei","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"International College of Pharmaceutical Innovation, Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Guojun","family":"Xiong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"International College of Pharmaceutical Innovation, Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5316-3706","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dan","family":"Wu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"International College of Pharmaceutical Innovation, Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, China"},{"name":"Department of Chemistry, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, 123 St Stephen\u2019s Green, D02 YN77 Dublin, Ireland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"209","article-title":"Global Cancer Statistics 2020: GLOBOCAN Estimates of Incidence and Mortality Worldwide for 36 Cancers in 185 Countries","volume":"71","author":"Sung","year":"2021","journal-title":"CA Cancer J. 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