{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,12]],"date-time":"2025-10-12T03:40:00Z","timestamp":1760240400688,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":119,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,6,7]],"date-time":"2019-06-07T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1559865600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100010230","name":"Queensland Health","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["Not applicable"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["Not applicable"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100010230","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"The Centaur Memorial Fund for Nurses","award":["Not applicable"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["Not applicable"]}]},{"name":"The University of Queensland","award":["Not applicable"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["Not applicable"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["MPs"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Maternal tobacco smoking is a recognized risk behavior that has adverse impacts on maternal and fetal health. However, in some populations, the use of smokeless tobacco exceeds the use of smoked tobacco. In central Australia, Aboriginal populations utilize wild tobacco plants (Nicotiana spp.) as a smokeless product. These plants are known by a variety of names, one of which is pituri. The plants are masticated and retained in the oral cavity for extended periods of time and their use continues throughout pregnancy, birth, and lactation. In contrast to the evidence related to combusted tobacco use, there is no evidence as to the effects of pituri use in pregnancy. Central Australian Aboriginal women who were at least 28 weeks pregnant were stratified into three tobacco exposure groups: (a) Pituri chewers, (b) smokers, and (c) non-tobacco users. Routine antenatal and birth information, pre-existing and pregnancy-related maternal characteristics, fetal characteristics, and biological samples were collected and compared. The biological samples were analysed for tobacco and nicotine metabolite concentrations. Samples from the mother included venous blood, urine, hair and colostrum and\/or breast milk. From the neonate, this included Day 1 and Day 3 urine and meconium, and from the placenta, arterial and venous cord blood following delivery. This is the first study to correlate the pregnancy outcomes of central Australian Aboriginal women with different tobacco exposures. The findings will provide the foundation for epidemiological data collection in related studies. Note to readers: In this article, the term \u201cAboriginal\u201d was chosen by central Australian women to refer to both themselves and the Aboriginal people in their communities. \u201cIndigenous\u201d was chosen to refer to the wider Australian Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/mps2020047","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,6,7]],"date-time":"2019-06-07T11:35:05Z","timestamp":1559907305000},"page":"47","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Tobacco and Pituri Use in Pregnancy: A Protocol for Measuring Maternal and Perinatal Exposure and Outcomes in Central Australian Aboriginal Women"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"2","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0806-6293","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Angela","family":"Ratsch","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Education, Development and Support, Wide Bay Hospital and Health Service, Hervey Bay 4655, Australia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7357-330X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kathryn","family":"Steadman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Pharmacy, The University of Queensland, Brisbane 4072, Australia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5797-500X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"BoMi","family":"Ryu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Pharmacy, The University of Queensland, Brisbane 4072, Australia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9909-5852","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Fiona","family":"Bogossian","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Health &amp; Sports Science and School of Nursing, Midwifery and Paramedicine, University of the Sunshine Coast, Maroochydore 4558, Australia"},{"name":"School of Nursing, Midwifery and Social Work, The University of Queensland, Brisbane 4072, Australia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,6,7]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Akehurst, B.C. (1968). Tobacco, Longnes, Green and Company."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Australia\u2019s Virtual Herbarium (2019, April 20). Nicotiana. Available online: https:\/\/avh.ala.org.au\/occurrences\/search?taxa=nicotiana#tab_mapView."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00469","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2017.e00469","article-title":"Nicotine alkaloid levels, and nicotine to nornicotine conversion, in Australian Nicotiana species used as chewing tobacco","volume":"3","author":"Moghbel","year":"2017","journal-title":"Heliyon"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-540-69248-5_2","article-title":"Nicotine chemistry, metabolism, kinetics and biomarkers","volume":"Volume 192","author":"Henningfield","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nicotine Psychopharmacology, Handbook of Experimental Pharmacology"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxlet.2016.05.011","article-title":"In Vitro Cytotoxicity of Nicotiana Gossei Leaves, Used in the Australian Aboriginal Smokeless Tobacco Known as Pituri or Mingkulpa","volume":"254","author":"Moghbel","year":"2016","journal-title":"Toxicol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Shafey, O., Eriksen, M., Ross, H., and Mackey, J. (2018, June 20). The Tobacco Atlas. Available online: http:\/\/www.afro.who.int\/en\/clusters-a-programmes\/hpr\/health-risk-factors\/tobacco\/tobacco-country-profiles.html."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"633","DOI":"10.1016\/S0095-4543(05)70121-4","article-title":"Nicotine replacement therapy","volume":"26","author":"Fant","year":"1999","journal-title":"Prim. Care"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1972","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCULATIONAHA.114.007667","article-title":"E-cigarettes: A scientific review","volume":"129","author":"Grana","year":"2014","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ntt.2007.09.002","article-title":"If nicotine is a developmental neurotoxicant in animal studies, dare we recommend nicotine replacement therapy in pregnant women and adolescents?","volume":"30","author":"Slotkin","year":"2008","journal-title":"Neurotoxicol. Teratol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"384","DOI":"10.1159\/000457063","article-title":"Extent of nicotine and cotinine transfer to the human fetus, placenta and amniotic fluid of smoking mothers","volume":"8","author":"Luck","year":"1985","journal-title":"Dev. Pharmacol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1177","DOI":"10.1203\/00006450-197712000-00002","article-title":"Electrolyte pH changes in human milk","volume":"11","author":"Ansell","year":"1977","journal-title":"Pediatr. Res."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"810","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1651-2227.2004.tb03023.x","article-title":"Nicotine exposure in breastfed infants","volume":"93","author":"Dahlstrom","year":"2004","journal-title":"Acta Paediatr."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2125.1984.tb05014.x","article-title":"Nicotine and cotinine concentrations in serum and milk of nursing smokers","volume":"18","author":"Luck","year":"1984","journal-title":"Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"152","DOI":"10.1016\/j.reprotox.2009.03.012","article-title":"Tobacco and pregnancy","volume":"28","author":"Rogers","year":"2009","journal-title":"Reprod. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"R185","DOI":"10.1530\/REP-15-0295","article-title":"Adverse effects of perinatal nicotine exposure on reproductive outcomes","volume":"150","author":"Wong","year":"2015","journal-title":"Reproduction"},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"Knoob, G., Le Moal, M., and Thomson, R.F. (2010). Nicotine. Encyclopedia of Behavioral Neuroscience, Elsevier Science & Technology."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"735","DOI":"10.1590\/S0100-879X2007000500019","article-title":"Development of fetal nicotine and muscarinic receptors in utero","volume":"40","author":"Mao","year":"2007","journal-title":"Braz. J. Med. Biol. Res."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"176","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2016.11.013","article-title":"Developmental toxicity of nicotine: A transdisciplinary synthesis and implications for emerging tobacco products","volume":"72","author":"England","year":"2017","journal-title":"Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1016\/S0146-0005(96)80079-6","article-title":"The maternal and fetal physiologic effects of nicotine","volume":"20","author":"Lambers","year":"1996","journal-title":"Semin. Perinatol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1002\/bdrc.20118","article-title":"Nicotine and brain development","volume":"84","author":"Dwyer","year":"2008","journal-title":"Birth Defects Res. C Embryo Today Rev."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tcmj.2012.08.003","article-title":"Cigarettes and the developing brain: Picturing nicotine as a neuroteratogen using clinical and preclinical studies","volume":"24","author":"Liao","year":"2012","journal-title":"Tzu Chi Med. J."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1016\/0361-9230(95)00073-N","article-title":"Loss of neonatal hypoxia tolerance after prenatal nicotine exposure: Implications for sudden infant death syndrome","volume":"38","author":"Slotkin","year":"1995","journal-title":"Brain Res. Bull."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ntt.2010.08.006","article-title":"Effects of prenatal cigarette smoke exposure on neurobehavioral outcomes in 10-year-old children of adolescent mothers","volume":"33","author":"Cornelius","year":"2011","journal-title":"Neurotoxicol. Teratol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e976","DOI":"10.1038\/tp.2016.247","article-title":"DNA methylation and substance-use risk: A prospective, genome-wide study spanning gestation to adolescence","volume":"6","author":"Cecil","year":"2016","journal-title":"Transl. Psychiat."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"408","DOI":"10.1093\/ntr\/ntq017","article-title":"ADHD after fetal exposure to maternal smoking","volume":"12","author":"Lindblad","year":"2010","journal-title":"Nicotine Tob. Res."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1186\/s12967-015-0384-5","article-title":"DNA methylation patterns in newborns exposed to tobacco in utero","volume":"13","author":"Ivorra","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.me.37.020186.000321","article-title":"Clinical pharmacology of nicotine","volume":"37","author":"Benowitz","year":"1986","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Med."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"477","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1360-0443.1989.tb00604.x","article-title":"Pharmacology of nicotine","volume":"84","author":"Grenhoff","year":"1989","journal-title":"Br. J. Addict."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1124\/pr.57.1.3","article-title":"Metabolism and disposition kinetics of nicotine","volume":"57","author":"Hukkanen","year":"2005","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"594","DOI":"10.1124\/jpet.301.2.594","article-title":"Accelerated metabolism of nicotine and cotinine in pregnant smokers","volume":"301","author":"Dempsey","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"458","DOI":"10.1067\/mcp.2000.106129","article-title":"Nicotine metabolism and elimination kinetics in newborns","volume":"67","author":"Dempsey","year":"2000","journal-title":"Clin. Pharmacol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"220","DOI":"10.1093\/jat\/22.3.220","article-title":"Cocaine, nicotine, caffeine, and metabolite plasma concentrations in neonates","volume":"22","author":"Dempsey","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Anal. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"Omaye, S.T. (2003). Biomarkers for Tobacco Exposure in Utero and Adverse Birth Outcomes, University of Nevada. ProQuest Dissertations Publishing."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1200","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2014.09.094","article-title":"Determination of nicotine and cotinine in meconium from Greek neonates and correlation with birth weight and gestational age at birth","volume":"119","author":"Tsinisizeli","year":"2015","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"213","DOI":"10.2174\/157015907781695955","article-title":"Effects of nicotine during pregnancy: Human and experimental evidence","volume":"5","author":"Wickstrom","year":"2007","journal-title":"Curr. Neuropharmacol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"604","DOI":"10.1038\/clpt.1983.222","article-title":"Cotinine disposition and effects","volume":"34","author":"Benowitz","year":"1983","journal-title":"Clin. Pharmacol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1079","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.001081079","article-title":"Cord serum cotinine as a biomarker of fetal exposure to cigarette smoke at the end of pregnancy","volume":"108","author":"Pichini","year":"2000","journal-title":"Environ. Health Perspect."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1160","DOI":"10.1158\/1055-9965.EPI-09-1303","article-title":"Estimation of nicotine dose after low level exposure using plasma and urine nicotine metabolites","volume":"19","author":"Benowitz","year":"2010","journal-title":"Cancer Epidemiol. Biomark. Prev."},{"key":"ref_39","first-page":"1668","article-title":"Anabasine and anatabine as biomarkers for tobacco use during nicotine replacement therapy","volume":"11","author":"Jacob","year":"2002","journal-title":"Cancer Epidemiol. Biomark. Prev."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"808","DOI":"10.1016\/0002-9378(57)90391-5","article-title":"A preliminary report on cigarette smoking and the incidence of prematurity","volume":"73","author":"Simpson","year":"1957","journal-title":"Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"170","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.1205404","article-title":"Evaluation of the association between maternal smoking, childhood obesity, and metabolic disorders: A national toxicology program workshop review","volume":"121","author":"Behl","year":"2013","journal-title":"Environ. Health Perspect."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1080\/87565640802564366","article-title":"Maternal smoking during pregnancy and child outcomes: Real or spurious effect?","volume":"34","author":"Knopik","year":"2009","journal-title":"Dev. Neuropsychol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S125","DOI":"10.1080\/14622200410001669187","article-title":"The epidemiology of smoking during pregnancy: Smoking prevalence, maternal characteristics, and pregnancy outcomes","volume":"6","author":"Cnattingius","year":"2004","journal-title":"Nicotine Tob. Res."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"274048","DOI":"10.1155\/2014\/274048","article-title":"Prenatal exposure to nicotine in pregnant rat increased inflammatory marker in newborn rat","volume":"2014","author":"Mohsenzadeh","year":"2014","journal-title":"Mediat. Inflamm."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"403","DOI":"10.3389\/fncel.2014.00403","article-title":"Prenatal nicotine exposure enhances C\u00d743 and Panx1 unopposed channel activity in brain cells of adult offspring mice fed a high-fat\/cholesterol diet","volume":"8","author":"Orellana","year":"2014","journal-title":"Front. Cell. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1731","DOI":"10.1586\/erc.10.169","article-title":"Venous thromboembolism in pregnancy","volume":"8","author":"Chan","year":"2010","journal-title":"Expert Rev. Cardiovasc. Ther."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"597","DOI":"10.1093\/ntr\/ntx001","article-title":"Maternal smoking during pregnancy and the risk of psychiatric morbidity in singleton sibling pairs","volume":"19","author":"Ekblad","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nicotine Tob. Res."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"495","DOI":"10.1093\/ntr\/ntx034","article-title":"Smoking in pregnancy: An ongoing challenge","volume":"19","author":"Bauld","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nicotine Tob. Res."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"663","DOI":"10.1093\/ntr\/nty035","article-title":"Maternal smoking during pregnancy and negative health outcomes in the offspring","volume":"20","author":"Berlin","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nicotine Tob. Res."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Haustein, K.-O., and Groneberg, D. (2010). Smoking and pregnancy. Tobacco or Health?, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-540-87577-2_8"},{"key":"ref_51","unstructured":"Asma, S., Mackay, J., Song, S.Y., Zhao, L., Morton, J., and Palipudi, K.M. (2015). The GATS Atlas: Global Adult Tobacco Survey, CDC Foundation."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e513","DOI":"10.1016\/S2214-109X(14)70283-9","article-title":"Tobacco use in pregnant women: Analysis of data from Demographic and Health Surveys from 54 low-income and middle-income countries","volume":"2","author":"Caleyachetty","year":"2014","journal-title":"Lancet Glob. Health"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"454","DOI":"10.3109\/00016341003605719","article-title":"Non-cigarette tobacco use among women and adverse pregnancy outcomes","volume":"89","author":"England","year":"2010","journal-title":"Acta Obstet. Gynecol. Scand."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"599","DOI":"10.1007\/s00038-014-0558-6","article-title":"Smokeless tobacco use in pregnancy: An integrative review of the literature","volume":"59","author":"Ratsch","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Publ. Health"},{"key":"ref_55","unstructured":"University of New South Wales (2019, January 16). National Perinatal Epidemiology and Statistics Unit (NPESU). Available online: http:\/\/npesu.unsw.edu.au\/."},{"key":"ref_56","unstructured":"Li, L., and O\u2019Neil, L. (2018). Mothers and Babies 2015: Northern Territory Midwives\u2019 Collection."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4044","DOI":"10.22605\/RRH4044","article-title":"The Pituri Learning Story: Central Australian Aboriginal women\u2019s knowledge and practices around the use of Nicotiana spp. as a chewing tobacco","volume":"17","author":"Ratsch","year":"2017","journal-title":"Rural Remote Health"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"885","DOI":"10.1080\/14622200310001614647","article-title":"Surveillance of smokeless tobacco nicotine, pH, moisture, and unprotonated nicotine content","volume":"5","author":"Richter","year":"2003","journal-title":"Nicotine Tob. Res."},{"key":"ref_59","unstructured":"Watson, C., Fleming, J., and Alexander, K. (1988). A Survey of Drug Use Patterns in Northern Territory Aboriginal Communities: 1986\u20131987."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"772","DOI":"10.1016\/j.stemcr.2019.01.022","article-title":"Single-cell RNA sequencing of human embryonic stem cell differentiation delineates adverse effects of nicotine on embryonic development","volume":"12","author":"Guo","year":"2019","journal-title":"Stem Cell Rep."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"134","DOI":"10.1016\/j.taap.2013.12.008","article-title":"Prolonged endoplasmic reticulum stress alters placental morphology and causes low birth weight","volume":"275","author":"Kawakami","year":"2014","journal-title":"Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E443","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpendo.00478.2013","article-title":"Characterization of the adverse effects of nicotine on placental development: In vivo and in vitro studies","volume":"306","author":"Holloway","year":"2014","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1721","DOI":"10.1517\/14740338.2014.973846","article-title":"Is it safe to use smoking cessation therapeutics during pregnancy?","volume":"13","author":"Barra","year":"2014","journal-title":"Expert Opin. Drug Saf."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"00197","DOI":"10.1183\/23120541.00197-2018","article-title":"Stopping when knowing: Use of snus and nicotine during pregnancy in Scandinavia","volume":"5","author":"Kreyberg","year":"2019","journal-title":"ERJ Open Res."},{"key":"ref_65","unstructured":"Gunnerbeck, A. (2017). Prenatal Nicotine Exposure and Effects on the Health of the Newborn, Karolinska Institutet."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1058","DOI":"10.1093\/ntr\/ntu255","article-title":"Maternal smokeless tobacco use in pregnancy and adverse health outcomes in newborns: A systematic review","volume":"17","author":"Inamdar","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nicotine Tob. Res."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1351","DOI":"10.4045\/tidsskr.15.1341","article-title":"Use of snus and smoking tobacco among pregnant women in the Agder counties","volume":"16","author":"Rygh","year":"2016","journal-title":"Tidsskr. Nor. Legeforen. Nr."},{"key":"ref_68","unstructured":"Health Gains Planning Unit (2012). Central Australian Regional Plan (2010-2012)."},{"key":"ref_69","unstructured":"Ngaanyatjarra Pitjantjatjara Yankunytjatjara Women\u2019s Council Aboriginal Corporation (2019, January 19). History and Map. Available online: https:\/\/www.npywc.org.au\/about\/."},{"key":"ref_70","unstructured":"Cassowary (2019, January 08). Local Government Areas of Australia. Available online: https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Australian_local_government_areas.png."},{"key":"ref_71","unstructured":"National Health and Medical Research Council (2006). Keeping Research on Track: A Guide for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples about Health Research Ethics."},{"key":"ref_72","unstructured":"National Health and Medical Research Council (2003). Values and Ethics: Guidelines for Ethical Conduct in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Health Research."},{"key":"ref_73","unstructured":"Hardon, A., Hodgkin, C., and Fresle, D. (2004). How to Investigate the Use of Medicines by Consumers, University of Amsterdam."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"481","DOI":"10.1093\/oxfordjournals.bjc.a014193","article-title":"A just measure of shame? Aboriginal youth and conferencing in Australia","volume":"37","author":"Blagg","year":"1997","journal-title":"Br. J. Criminol."},{"key":"ref_75","unstructured":"Li, Z., Zeki, R., Hilder, L., and Sullivan, E. (2013). Australia\u2019s Mothers and Babies 2011."},{"key":"ref_76","unstructured":"Thompson, F. (2014). Northern Territory Midwives\u2019 Collection. Mothers and Babies 2011."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1038\/clpt.1988.107","article-title":"Nicotine absorption and cardiovascular effects with smokeless tobacco use: Comparison with cigarettes and nicotine gum","volume":"44","author":"Benowitz","year":"1988","journal-title":"Clin. Pharmacol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"180","DOI":"10.1002\/nur.20247","article-title":"Considerations in determining sample size for pilot studies","volume":"31","author":"Hertzog","year":"2008","journal-title":"Res. Nurs. Health"},{"key":"ref_79","unstructured":"Lawn, J.E., Yakoob, M.Y., Haws, R.A., Soomro, T., Darmstadt, G.L., and Bhutta, Z.A. (2009). 3.2 million stillbirths: Epidemiology and overview of the evidence review. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth, 9."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"257","DOI":"10.1097\/00003081-200606000-00008","article-title":"Perinatal outcome and later implications of intrauterine growth restriction","volume":"49","author":"Pallotto","year":"2006","journal-title":"Clin. Obstet. Gynecol."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"F378","DOI":"10.1136\/adc.2009.170928","article-title":"Fetal and perinatal consequences of maternal obesity","volume":"96","author":"Vasudevan","year":"2011","journal-title":"Arch. Dis. Child Fetal Neonatal Ed."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"391","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bpobgyn.2011.01.006","article-title":"Epidemiology of pre-eclampsia and the other hypertensive disorders of pregnancy","volume":"25","author":"Hutcheon","year":"2011","journal-title":"Best Pract. Res. Clin. Obstet. Gynaecol."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"713","DOI":"10.1016\/j.earlhumdev.2007.08.002","article-title":"Epidemiology of prenatal smoking and perinatal outcomes","volume":"83","author":"Salihu","year":"2007","journal-title":"Early Hum. Dev."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1097\/EDE.0b013e31823aca5d","article-title":"Conditioning on intermediates in perinatal epidemiology","volume":"23","author":"VanderWeele","year":"2012","journal-title":"Epidemiology"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.2471\/BLT.08.062554","article-title":"The worldwide incidence of preterm birth: A systematic review of maternal mortality and morbidity","volume":"88","author":"Beck","year":"2010","journal-title":"Bull. World Health Organ."},{"key":"ref_86","unstructured":"Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (2015). Australia\u2019s Mothers and Babies 2013 in Brief."},{"key":"ref_87","unstructured":"AIHW, Humphrey, M., Bonello, M., Chughtai, A., Macaldowie, A., Harris, K., and Chambers, G. (2015). Maternal Deaths in Australia 2008-2012."},{"key":"ref_88","unstructured":"Hall, J., Case, A., and O\u2019Neil, L. (2015). Northern Territory Midwives\u2019 Collection. Mothers and Babies 2013."},{"key":"ref_89","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2019, January 04). Maternal, Newborn, Child and Adolescent Health. Data, Statistics and Epidemiology. Available online: http:\/\/www.who.int\/maternal_child_adolescent\/epidemiology\/en\/."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.5204\/ijcis.v3i1.57","article-title":"Yarning about yarning as a legitimate method in Indigenous research","volume":"3","author":"Bessarab","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int. J. Crit. Indig. Stud."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1216","DOI":"10.1080\/07399332.2013.815754","article-title":"\u201cYarning\u201d as a method for community-based health research with Indigenous women: The Indigenous women\u2019s wellness research program","volume":"35","author":"Walker","year":"2014","journal-title":"Health Care Women Int."},{"key":"ref_92","unstructured":"Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (2019, January 02). Perinatal NMDS 2018-19, Available online: https:\/\/meteor.aihw.gov.au\/content\/index.phtml\/itemId\/668811."},{"key":"ref_93","unstructured":"Tew, K., You, J., and Pircher, S. (2008). Validation of Patient Demographic Data: Northern Territory Hospitals, 2008."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1331","DOI":"10.1080\/00016340600935433","article-title":"Self-reported nicotine exposure and plasma levels of cotinine in early and late pregnancy","volume":"85","author":"George","year":"2006","journal-title":"Acta Obstet. Gynecol. Scand."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1127","DOI":"10.1093\/ntr\/ntp151","article-title":"What\u2019s new in nicotine & tobacco research?","volume":"11","author":"Hebert","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nicotine Tob. Res."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"672","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM198409063111014","article-title":"Exposure of the fetus, neonates and nursed infant to nicotine and cotinine from maternal smokers","volume":"311","author":"Luck","year":"1984","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"525","DOI":"10.1515\/cclm.1996.34.7.525","article-title":"Cotinine concentrations in plasma of smoking pregnant women and their infants","volume":"34","author":"Schouten","year":"1996","journal-title":"Clin. Chem. Lab. Med."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"281","DOI":"10.1080\/14767050500123731","article-title":"Iqmik\u2014A form of smokeless tobacco used by pregnant Alaska natives: Nicotine exposure in their neonates","volume":"17","author":"Hurt","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Matern. Fetal Neonatal. Med."},{"key":"ref_99","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2007). Smokeless Tobacco and Some Tobacco-Specific N-Nitrosamines, WHO."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"367","DOI":"10.1159\/000065387","article-title":"Fetal tobacco syndrome and perinatal outcome","volume":"17","author":"Habek","year":"2002","journal-title":"Fetal Diagn. Ther."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jchromb.2008.01.001","article-title":"Quantification of Nicotine, Cotinine, trans-3\u2032-Hydroxycotinine, Nornicotine and Norcotinine in Human Meconium by Liquid Chromatography Tandem Mass Spectrometry","volume":"863","author":"Gray","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Chromatogr. B Anal. Technol. Biomed. Life Sci."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.89.1.107","article-title":"Drug screening of newborns by meconium analysis: A large-scale, prospective, epidemiologic study","volume":"89","author":"Ostrea","year":"1992","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_103","first-page":"261","article-title":"Half lives of nicotine in milk of smoking mothers: Implications for nursing","volume":"18","author":"Steldinger","year":"1988","journal-title":"J. Perinat. Med."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1318","DOI":"10.1093\/ntr\/ntu342","article-title":"The nicotine metabolite ratio in pregnancy measured by trans-3\u2032-hydroxycotinine to cotinine ratio: Characteristics and relationship with smoking cessation","volume":"17","author":"Vaz","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nicotine Tob. Res."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"909","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1471-0528.2002.01322.x","article-title":"Maternal smoking during pregnancy and nicotine and cotinine concentrations in maternal and neonatal hair","volume":"109","author":"Zhang","year":"2002","journal-title":"Br. J. Obstet. Gynaecol."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"66","DOI":"10.1136\/jech.56.1.66","article-title":"Is the hair nicotine level a more accurate biomarker of environmental tobacco smoke exposure than urine cotinine?","volume":"56","author":"Crane","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Epidemiol. Community Health"},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"437","DOI":"10.1097\/FTD.0b013e318074df6e","article-title":"Reference values for hair cotinine as a biomarker of active and passive smoking in women of reproductive age, pregnant women, children, and neonates: Systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"29","author":"Florescu","year":"2007","journal-title":"Ther. Drug Monit."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1016\/0379-0738(94)01623-D","article-title":"Measurement of drugs in neonatal hair: A window to fetal exposure","volume":"70","author":"Koren","year":"1995","journal-title":"Forensic Sci. Int."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1520\/JFS13383J","article-title":"Nicotine analysis in neonates\u2019 hair for measuring gestational exposure to tobacco","volume":"38","author":"Kintz","year":"1993","journal-title":"J. Forensic Sci."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"621","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.1994.03510320061031","article-title":"Hair concentrations of nicotine and cotinine in women and their newborn infants","volume":"271","author":"Eliopoulos","year":"1994","journal-title":"J. Am. Med. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1016\/j.arabjc.2010.06.027","article-title":"Determination of some benzimidazole fungicides in tomato puree by high performance liquid chromatography with sampliQ polymer SCX solid phase extraction","volume":"4","year":"2011","journal-title":"Arab. J. Chem."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"806","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.39335.541782.AD","article-title":"Strengthening the reporting of observational studies in epidemiology (STROBE) statement: Guidelines for reporting observational studies","volume":"335","author":"Altman","year":"2007","journal-title":"Br. Med. J."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1147","DOI":"10.1080\/01621459.1987.10478551","article-title":"Fine-tuning some resistant rules for outlier labeling","volume":"82","author":"Hoaglin","year":"1987","journal-title":"J. Am. Stat. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"648","DOI":"10.1111\/aogs.12124","article-title":"Effects of maternal smokeless tobacco use on selected pregnancy outcomes in alaska native women: A case-control study","volume":"92","author":"England","year":"2013","journal-title":"Acta Obstet. Gynecol. Scand."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ypmed.2009.12.009","article-title":"The effects of maternal smoking during pregnancy on offspring outcomes","volume":"50","author":"Agrawal","year":"2010","journal-title":"Prev. Med."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"719","DOI":"10.1586\/17474108.3.6.719","article-title":"Effects of maternal tobacco-smoke exposure on fetal growth and neonatal size","volume":"3","author":"Reeves","year":"2008","journal-title":"Expert Rev. Obstet. Gynecol."},{"key":"ref_117","first-page":"741","article-title":"High and low hemoglobin levels during pregnancy: Differential risks for preterm birth and small for gestational age","volume":"96","author":"Scanlon","year":"2000","journal-title":"Obstet. Gynecol."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1100","DOI":"10.1161\/HYPERTENSIONAHA.109.148973","article-title":"How does smoking reduce the risk of preeclampsia?","volume":"55","author":"Karumanchi","year":"2010","journal-title":"Hypertension"},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"364","DOI":"10.1093\/toxsci\/kfq103","article-title":"Long-term consequences of fetal and neonatal nicotine exposure: A critical review","volume":"116","author":"Bruin","year":"2010","journal-title":"Toxicol. Sci."}],"container-title":["Methods and Protocols"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2409-9279\/2\/2\/47\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T12:56:55Z","timestamp":1760187415000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2409-9279\/2\/2\/47"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2019,6,7]]},"references-count":119,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,6]]}},"alternative-id":["mps2020047"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mps2020047","relation":{},"ISSN":["2409-9279"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2409-9279"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2019,6,7]]}}}