{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,27]],"date-time":"2026-10-27T20:36:32Z","timestamp":1793133392330,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":55,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,3]],"date-time":"2021-03-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1614729600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nanomaterials"],"abstract":"<jats:p>A molecularly imprinted sol-gel is reported for selective and sensitive electrochemical determination of the drug naloxone (NLX). The sensor was developed by combining molecular imprinting and sol-gel techniques and electrochemically grafting the sol solution onto a functionalized multiwall carbon nanotube modified indium-tin oxide (ITO) electrode. The sol-gel layer was obtained from acid catalyzed hydrolysis and condensation of a solution composed of triethoxyphenylsilane (TEPS) and tetraethoxysilane (TES). The fabrication, structure and properties of the sensing material were characterized via scanning electron microscopy, spectroscopy and electrochemical techniques. Parameters affecting the sensor\u2019s performance were evaluated and optimized. A sensor fabricated under the optimized conditions responded linearly between 0.0 \u00b5M and 12 \u00b5M NLX, with a detection limit of 0.02 \u00b5M. The sensor also showed good run-to-run repeatability and batch-to-batch performance reproducibility with relative standard deviations (RSD) of 2.5\u20137.8% (n = 3) and 9.2% (n = 4), respectively. The developed sensor displayed excellent selectivity towards NLX compared to structurally similar compounds (codeine, fentanyl, naltrexone and noroxymorphone), and was successfully used to measure NLX in synthetic urine samples yielding recoveries greater than 88%.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/nano11030631","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,3]],"date-time":"2021-03-03T20:29:48Z","timestamp":1614803388000},"page":"631","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":23,"title":["A Molecularly Imprinted Sol-Gel Electrochemical Sensor for Naloxone Determination"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"given":"Narges","family":"Shaabani","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Nanotechnology Research Centre, National Research Council Canada, Edmonton, AB T6G 2M9, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nora W. C.","family":"Chan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Defence Research and Development Canada\u2014Suffield Research Centre, Medicine Hat, AB T1A 8K6, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8205-7304","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Abebaw B.","family":"Jemere","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Nanotechnology Research Centre, National Research Council Canada, Edmonton, AB T6G 2M9, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,3]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1097\/02024458-201006000-00004","article-title":"Characteristics of prescription opioid abuse in the United States and Canada","volume":"1","author":"Cicero","year":"2010","journal-title":"Can. J. Addict."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1240","DOI":"10.1503\/cmaj.160356","article-title":"Effective Canadian policy to reduce harms from prescription opioids: Learning from past failures","volume":"188","author":"Fischer","year":"2016","journal-title":"CMAJ"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2072","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mayocp.2019.03.029","article-title":"Medication-assisted treatment for opioid-use disorder","volume":"94","author":"Oesterle","year":"2019","journal-title":"Mayo Clin. Proc."},{"key":"ref_4","first-page":"107","article-title":"Strategies to prevent opioid misuse, abuse, and diversion that may also reduce the associated costs","volume":"4","author":"Hahn","year":"2011","journal-title":"Am. Health Drug Benefits"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1177\/2042098617744161","article-title":"Naloxone dosage for opioid reversal: Current evidence and clinical implications","volume":"9","author":"Lynn","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ther. Adv. Drug Saf."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1395","DOI":"10.1007\/s40265-019-01154-5","article-title":"Take-home naloxone for the emergency interim management of opioid overdose: The public health application of an emergency medicine","volume":"79","author":"Strang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Drugs"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"612","DOI":"10.1136\/emj.2003.009613","article-title":"Naloxone in opioid poisoning: Walking the tightrope","volume":"22","author":"Clarke","year":"2005","journal-title":"Emerg. Med. J."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"220","DOI":"10.1002\/dta.1464","article-title":"Urine naloxone concentration at different phases of buprenorphine maintenance treatment","volume":"6","author":"Heikman","year":"2013","journal-title":"Drug Test. Anal."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"70","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chroma.2016.03.076","article-title":"Simultaneous quantification of buprenorphine, naloxone and phase I and II metabolites in plasma and breastmilk by liquid chromatography\u2013tandem mass spectrometry","volume":"1446","author":"Swortwood","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Chromatogr. A"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.4155\/bio-2018-0134","article-title":"Simultaneous quantification of high-dose naloxone and naloxone-3-\u03b2-d-glucuronide in human plasma by UHPLC\u2013MS\/MS","volume":"11","author":"Kongstad","year":"2019","journal-title":"Bioanalysis"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"409","DOI":"10.1093\/jat\/33.8.409","article-title":"Determination of naloxone and nornaloxone (Noroxymorphone) by high-performance liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization-tandem mass spectrometry","volume":"33","author":"Fang","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Anal. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"685","DOI":"10.1021\/ac202878q","article-title":"Electrochemical sensors and biosensors","volume":"84","author":"Kimmel","year":"2012","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11981","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.analchem.0c02430","article-title":"Application of multiplex microfluidic electrochemical sensors in monitoring hematological tumor biomarkers","volume":"92","author":"Zhu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9001","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.chemrev.6b00220","article-title":"Electrochemical methods for the analysis of clinically relevant biomolecules","volume":"116","author":"Labib","year":"2016","journal-title":"Chem. Rev."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1827","DOI":"10.1007\/s00216-011-5405-5","article-title":"MIP sensors\u2014The electrochemical approach","volume":"402","author":"Malitesta","year":"2012","journal-title":"Anal. Bioanal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"188","DOI":"10.1002\/elan.201800623","article-title":"Recent advances in electrochemical sensors based on molecularly imprinted polymers and nanomaterials","volume":"31","author":"Lahcen","year":"2019","journal-title":"Electroanalysis"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"94","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.chemrev.8b00171","article-title":"Molecularly imprinted polymers","volume":"19","author":"BelBruno","year":"2019","journal-title":"Chem. Rev."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"294","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tibtech.2018.08.009","article-title":"Molecularly imprinted polymers in electrochemical and optical sensors","volume":"37","author":"Ahmad","year":"2019","journal-title":"Trends Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12568","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmrt.2020.08.052","article-title":"Molecularly imprinted polymers for electrochemical detection and analysis: Progress and perspectives","volume":"9","author":"Cui","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Mater. Res. Technol"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shrivastava, S., Jadon, N., and Jain, R. (2016). Next-generation polymer nanocomposite-based electrochemical sensors and biosensors: A review. Trends Anal. Chem.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trac.2016.04.005"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120351","DOI":"10.1016\/j.talanta.2019.120351","article-title":"Molecularly imprinted polypyrrole based electrochemical sensor for selective determination of 4-ethylphenol","volume":"207","year":"2020","journal-title":"Talanta"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"52","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trac.2018.04.011","article-title":"Frontiers in highly sensitive molecularly imprinted electrochemical sensors: Challenges and strategies","volume":"105","author":"Yang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Trends Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"745","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2016.12.031","article-title":"Molecularly imprinted electrochemical sensor prepared on a screen printed carbon electrode for naloxone detection","volume":"243","author":"Lopes","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137508","DOI":"10.1149\/1945-7111\/abbb0d","article-title":"Electrochemical determination of naloxone using molecularly imprinted poly(para-phenylenediamine) sensor","volume":"167","author":"Shaabani","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Electrochem. Soc."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2014.03.028","article-title":"Caffeine electrochemical sensor using imprinted film as recognition element based on polypyrrole, sol-gel, and gold nanoparticles hybrid nanocomposite modified pencil graphite electrode","volume":"60","author":"Rezaei","year":"2014","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"512","DOI":"10.1007\/s00604-020-04482-6","article-title":"Molecularly imprinted sol-gel electrochemical sensor for sildenafil based on a pencil graphite electrode modified by Preyssler heteropolyacid\/gold nanoparticles\/MWCNT nanocomposite","volume":"187","author":"Rouhani","year":"2020","journal-title":"Microchim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"786","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodcont.2010.11.017","article-title":"Electrochemical sensor based on imprinted sol\u2013gel and nanomaterials for sensitive determination of bisphenol A","volume":"22","author":"Huang","year":"2011","journal-title":"Food Control"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mujahid, A., Lieberzeit, P.A., and Dickert, F.L. (2010). Chemical Sensors Based on Molecularly Imprinted Sol-Gel Materials. Materials, 3.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma3042196"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"332","DOI":"10.1016\/j.electacta.2014.01.056","article-title":"A novel electrochemical nanocomposite imprinted sensor for the determination of lorazepam based on modified polypyrrole@sol-gel@gold nanoparticles\/pencil graphite electrode","volume":"123","author":"Rezaei","year":"2014","journal-title":"Electrochim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, C., Wyszynski, B., Yatabe, R., Hayashi, K., and Toko, K. (2017). Molecularly imprinted sol-gel-based QCM sensor arrays for the Detection and recognition of volatile aldehydes. Sensors, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/s17020382"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"933","DOI":"10.1007\/s00604-014-1413-4","article-title":"Voltammetric sensor for theophylline using sol\u2013gel immobilized molecularly imprinted polymer particles","volume":"182","author":"Bates","year":"2015","journal-title":"Microchim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"475","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2013.03.054","article-title":"Electrochemical sensor based on molecularly imprinted polymer film via sol-gel technology and multi-walled carbon nanotubes-chitosan functional layer for sensitive determination of quinoxaline-2-carboxylic acid","volume":"47","author":"Yang","year":"2013","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"739","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2012.03.051","article-title":"Electrochemical sensor based on imprinted sol\u2013gel and nanomaterial for determination of caffeine","volume":"166-167","author":"Santos","year":"2012","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"307","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2014.10.056","article-title":"Selective electrochemical sensor for theophylline based on anelectrode modified with imprinted sol\u2013gel film immobilized on carbon nanoparticle layer","volume":"208","author":"Cebec","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"616326","DOI":"10.3389\/fchem.2020.616326","article-title":"Recent advances and future trends in the detection of contaminants by molecularly imprinted polymers in food samples","volume":"8","author":"Gao","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Chem."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"294","DOI":"10.1016\/j.talanta.2014.07.012","article-title":"Electrochemical impedimetric sensor based on molecularly imprinted polymers\/sol-gel chemistry for methidathion organophosphorous insecticide recognition","volume":"130","author":"Bakas","year":"2014","journal-title":"Talanta"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"651","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2016.07.110","article-title":"Development of a new electrochemical imprinted sensor based on poly-pyrole, sol-gel and multiwall carbon nanotubes for determination of tramadol","volume":"238","author":"Deiminiat","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yarman, A., and Scheller, F.W. (2020). How reliable is the electrochemical readout of MIP sensors?. Sensors, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/s20092677"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100018","DOI":"10.1016\/j.talo.2020.100018","article-title":"Molecularly imprinted polymer based electrochemical biosensors: Overcoming the challenges of detecting vital biomarkers and speeding up diagnosis","volume":"2","author":"Crapnell","year":"2020","journal-title":"Talanta Open"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2018.08.016","article-title":"A novel electrochemical imprinted sensor for ultrasensitive detection of the new psychoactive substance \u201cMephedrone\u201d","volume":"119","author":"Razavipanah","year":"2018","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"158","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcis.2009.12.022","article-title":"Novel layer-by-layer assembly molecularly imprinted sol-gel sensor for selective recognition of clindamycin based on Au electrode decorated by multi-wall carbon nanotube","volume":"344","author":"Zhang","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Colloid Interface Sci."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"420","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2016.07.035","article-title":"Ultrasensitive sensing of diethylstilbestrol based on AuNPs\/MWCNTs-CS composites coupling with sol-gel molecularly imprinted polymer as a recognition element of an electrochemical sensor","volume":"238","author":"Bai","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3325","DOI":"10.1039\/C9NA00455F","article-title":"Preparation and applications of electrochemical chemosensors based on carbon-nanomaterialmodified molecularly imprinted polymers","volume":"1","author":"Gui","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nanoscale Adv."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jallcom.2010.04.032","article-title":"Multiwall carbon nanotubes purification and oxidation by nitric acid studied by the FTIR and electron spectroscopy methods","volume":"501","author":"Stobinski","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Alloys Compd."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1557\/jmr.2014.303","article-title":"Effect of MWCNT functionalization on thermal and electrical properties of PHBV\/MWCNT nanocomposites","volume":"30","author":"Montanheiro","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Mater. Res."},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"Bard, A.J., and Faulkner, L.R. (2001). Electrochemical Methods: Fundamentals and Applications, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"80","DOI":"10.1016\/j.electacta.2017.04.050","article-title":"Highly sensitive amperometric detection of drugs and antioxidants on non-functionalized multi-walled carbon nanotubes: Effect of metallic impurities?","volume":"240","author":"Stefano","year":"2017","journal-title":"Electrochim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1007\/s10008-019-04465-5","article-title":"Electrochemical detection of 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene on carbon nanotube modified electrode: Effect of acid functionalization","volume":"24","author":"Stefano","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Solid State Electrochem."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3663","DOI":"10.1039\/b504839g","article-title":"Exciting new directions in the intersection of functionalized sol-gel materials with electrochemistry","volume":"15","author":"Walcarius","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Matter. Chem."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2556","DOI":"10.20964\/2018.03.75","article-title":"Electrochemical methods based on molecularly imprinted polymers for drug detection. A review","volume":"13","author":"Cernat","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Electrochem. Sci"},{"key":"ref_51","first-page":"879","article-title":"Advances in the physicochemical profiling of opioid compounds of therapeutic interest","volume":"8","author":"Hosztafi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Chem. Open."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112719","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2020.112719","article-title":"Molecularly imprinted polymer-based electrochemical sensors for environmental analysis","volume":"172","author":"Rebelo","year":"2021","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_53","first-page":"17","article-title":"Route evaluation and analytical HPLC method development of buprenorphine, naloxone, and comparison overall efficiency of naltrexone nalbuphine traces the evolution of various approaches","volume":"1","author":"Pathy","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sch. J. food Nutr."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1415","DOI":"10.1016\/j.talanta.2008.09.024","article-title":"Development and validation of a HPLC method for the determination of buprenorphine hydrochloride, naloxone hydrochloride and noroxymorphone in a tablet formulation","volume":"77","author":"Mostafavi","year":"2009","journal-title":"Talanta"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1186\/s13722-020-0178-9","article-title":"Use of urinary naloxone levels in a single provider practice: A case study","volume":"15","author":"Warrington","year":"2020","journal-title":"Addict. Sci. Cln. Pract."}],"container-title":["Nanomaterials"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-4991\/11\/3\/631\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T05:32:15Z","timestamp":1760160735000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-4991\/11\/3\/631"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,3]]},"references-count":55,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,3]]}},"alternative-id":["nano11030631"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/nano11030631","relation":{},"ISSN":["2079-4991"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2079-4991","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,3]]}}}