{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,7]],"date-time":"2026-10-07T23:22:53Z","timestamp":1791415373514,"version":"4.3.3"},"reference-count":149,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"13","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,30]],"date-time":"2022-06-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1656547200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Surescreen Diagnostics","award":["10757"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["10757"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nanomaterials"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Sensors developed from nanomaterials are increasingly used in a variety of fields, from simple wearable or medical sensors to be used at home to monitor health, to more complicated sensors being used by border customs or aviation industries. In recent times, nanoparticle-based sensors have begun to revolutionize drug-detection techniques, mainly due to their affordability, ease of use and portability, compared to conventional chromatography techniques. Thin graphene layers provide a significantly high surface to weight ratio compared to other nanomaterials, a characteristic that has led to the design of more sensitive and reliable sensors. The exceptional properties of graphene coupled with its potential to be tuned to target specific molecules have made graphene-based sensors one of the most popular and well-researched sensing materials of the past two decades with applications in environmental monitoring, medical diagnostics, and industries. Here, we present a review of developments in the applications of graphene-based sensors in sensing drugs such as cocaine, morphine, methamphetamine, ketamine, tramadol and so forth in the past decade. We compare graphene sensors with other sensors developed from ultrathin two-dimensional materials, such as transition-metal dichalcogenides, hexagonal boron nitrate, and MXenes, to measure drugs directly and indirectly, in various samples.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/nano12132250","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,1]],"date-time":"2022-07-01T00:21:50Z","timestamp":1656634910000},"page":"2250","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":37,"title":["Graphene-Based Electrochemical Sensors for Psychoactive Drugs"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7648-269X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ramin","family":"Boroujerdi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Science and Technology, Talbot Campus, Bournemouth University, Fern Barrow, Poole BH12 5BB, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Richard","family":"Paul","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Science and Technology, Talbot Campus, Bournemouth University, Fern Barrow, Poole BH12 5BB, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"367","DOI":"10.1002\/dta.147","article-title":"Guidelines for European workplace drug and alcohol testing in hair","volume":"2","author":"Agius","year":"2010","journal-title":"Drug Test. 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