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MPs and NPs are thus widely present in water and air and inevitably enter the food chain, with inhalation and ingestion as the main exposure routes for humans. Many recent studies have demonstrated that MPs and NPs gain access to several body compartments, where they are taken up by cells, increase the production of reactive oxygen species, and lead to inflammatory changes. In most tissues, resident macrophages engage in the first approach to foreign materials, and this interaction largely affects the subsequent fate of the material and the possible pathological outcomes. On the other hand, macrophages are the main organizers and controllers of both inflammatory responses and tissue repair. Here, we aim to summarize the available information on the interaction of macrophages with MPs and NPs. Particular attention will be devoted to the consequences of this interaction on macrophage viability and functions, as well as to possible implications in pathology.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/nano15050394","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,4]],"date-time":"2025-03-04T10:43:31Z","timestamp":1741085011000},"page":"394","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":36,"title":["Biological Effects of Micro-\/Nano-Plastics in Macrophages"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4179-6573","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Massimiliano G.","family":"Bianchi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Parma, 43125 Parma, Italy"},{"name":"Microbiome Research Hub, University of Parma, 43125 Parma, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9044-6767","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lavinia","family":"Casati","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Health Sciences, University of Milan, 20122 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Giulia","family":"Sauro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Health Sciences, University of Milan, 20122 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9606-1171","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Giuseppe","family":"Taurino","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Parma, 43125 Parma, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8100-2547","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Erika","family":"Griffini","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Parma, 43125 Parma, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5062-3164","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Christian","family":"Milani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Microbiome Research Hub, University of Parma, 43125 Parma, Italy"},{"name":"Department of Chemistry, Life Sciences and Environmental Sustainability, University of Parma, 43125 Parma, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Marco","family":"Ventura","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Microbiome Research Hub, University of Parma, 43125 Parma, Italy"},{"name":"Department of Chemistry, Life Sciences and Environmental Sustainability, University of Parma, 43125 Parma, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4301-2939","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ovidio","family":"Bussolati","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Parma, 43125 Parma, Italy"},{"name":"Microbiome Research Hub, University of Parma, 43125 Parma, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5655-9984","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Martina","family":"Chiu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Parma, 43125 Parma, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,4]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1186\/s12989-020-00387-7","article-title":"Immunotoxicity and intestinal effects of nano- and microplastics: A review of the literature","volume":"17","author":"Hirt","year":"2020","journal-title":"Part. 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