{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,15]],"date-time":"2026-10-15T16:26:12Z","timestamp":1792081572848,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":45,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"14","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,16]],"date-time":"2025-07-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1752624000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nanomaterials"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Recently, with the development of automation technology in various fields, much research has been conducted on infrared photodetectors, which are the core technology of LiDAR sensors. However, most infrared photodetectors are expensive because they use compound semiconductors based on epitaxial processes, and they have low safety because they use the near-infrared (NIR) region that can damage the retina. Therefore, they are difficult to apply to automation technologies such as automobiles and factories where humans can be constantly exposed. In contrast, short-wavelength infrared photodetectors based on PbS QDs are actively being developed because they can absorb infrared rays in the eye-safe region by controlling the particle size of QDs and can be easily and inexpensively manufactured through a solution process. However, PbS QDs-based SWIR photodetectors have low chemical stability due to the electron\/hole extraction layer processed by the solution process, making it difficult to manufacture them in the form of patterning and arrays. In this study, bulk NiO and ZnO were deposited by sputtering to achieve uniformity and patterning of thin films, and the performance of PbS QDs-based photodetectors was improved by optimizing the thickness and annealing conditions of the thin films. The fabricated photodetector achieved a high response characteristic of 114.3% through optimized band gap and improved transmittance characteristics.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/nano15141107","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,16]],"date-time":"2025-07-16T12:55:00Z","timestamp":1752670500000},"page":"1107","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["Development of a Highly Reliable PbS QDs-Based SWIR Photodetector Based on Metal Oxide Electron\/Hole Extraction Layer Formation Conditions"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"JinBeom","family":"Kwon","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Advanced Mobility System Group, Korea Institute of Industrial Technology (KITECH), Daegu 42994, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6496-2933","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yuntae","family":"Ha","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Advanced Mobility System Group, Korea Institute of Industrial Technology (KITECH), Daegu 42994, Republic of Korea"},{"name":"School of Electronic and Electrical Engineering, Kyungpook National University, Daegu 41566, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Suji","family":"Choi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Advanced Mobility System Group, Korea Institute of Industrial Technology (KITECH), Daegu 42994, Republic of Korea"},{"name":"School of Electronic and Electrical Engineering, Kyungpook National University, Daegu 41566, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Donggeon","family":"Jung","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Advanced Mobility System Group, Korea Institute of Industrial Technology (KITECH), Daegu 42994, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16100","DOI":"10.1038\/natrevmats.2016.100","article-title":"Solution-processed semiconductors for next-generation photodetectors","volume":"2","author":"Arquer","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Mater."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"180","DOI":"10.1038\/nature04855","article-title":"Ultrasensitive solution-cast quantum dot photodetectors","volume":"442","author":"Konstantatos","year":"2006","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"673","DOI":"10.1109\/68.491591","article-title":"InSb infrared photodetectors on Si substrates grown by molecular beam epitaxy","volume":"8","author":"Michel","year":"1996","journal-title":"IEEE Photonics Technol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"475","DOI":"10.1063\/1.1641165","article-title":"Terahertz range quantum well infrared photodetector","volume":"84","author":"Graf","year":"2004","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Lett."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161107","DOI":"10.1063\/1.3419885","article-title":"Plasmonic enhanced quantum well infrared photodetector with high detectivity","volume":"96","author":"Wu","year":"2010","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Lett."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"566","DOI":"10.1109\/55.260791","article-title":"Multicolor voltage-tunable quantum-well infrared photodetector","volume":"14","author":"Liu","year":"1993","journal-title":"IEEE Electron Device Lett."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2024","DOI":"10.1063\/1.105001","article-title":"InGaAs\/InP long wavelength quantum well infrared photodetectors","volume":"58","author":"Gunapala","year":"1991","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Lett."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"332","DOI":"10.1038\/nphoton.2009.72","article-title":"Near-infrared imaging with quantum-dot sensitized organic photodiodes","volume":"3","author":"Rauch","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nat. Photon."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-0248(01)02131-5","article-title":"Epitaxial growth of InGaAs on misoriented GaAs (100) substrate by metal organic vapor phase epitaxy","volume":"236","author":"Takano","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Cryst. Growth"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"787","DOI":"10.1063\/1.90952","article-title":"Vapor-phase epitaxial growth of InGaAs lattice matched to (100) InP for photodiode application","volume":"35","author":"Hyder","year":"1979","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Lett."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1328","DOI":"10.1002\/smll.201503244","article-title":"Inorganic UV-Visible-SWIR broadband photodetector based on monodisperse PbS nanocrystals","volume":"12","author":"Lee","year":"2016","journal-title":"Small"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1844","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.200305395","article-title":"Colloidal PbS nanocrystals with size-tunable near-infrared emission: Observation of post-synthesis self-narrowing of the particle size distribution","volume":"15","author":"Hines","year":"2003","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1805","DOI":"10.1021\/cm200051j","article-title":"Impact of the growth conditions of colloidal PbS nanocrystals on photovoltaic device performance","volume":"23","author":"Fu","year":"2011","journal-title":"Chem. Mater."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1186\/s40580-020-00238-3","article-title":"Air-stable and ultrasensitive solution-cast SWIR photodetectors utilizing modified core\/shell colloidal quantum dots","volume":"7","author":"Kwon","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nano Converg."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20600","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-024-71453-9","article-title":"Solution-processed NO2 gas sensor based on poly(3-hexylthiophene)-doped PbS quantum dots operable at room temperature","volume":"14","author":"Kwon","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2089","DOI":"10.1063\/1.1792380","article-title":"Photoconductivity from PbS-nanocrystal\/semiconducting polymer composites for solution-processible, quantum-size tunable infrared photodetectors","volume":"85","author":"McDonald","year":"2004","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Lett."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87730","DOI":"10.1039\/C6RA19946A","article-title":"High performance solution-processed infrared photodiode based on ternary PbSxSe1\u2212x colloidal quantum dots","volume":"6","author":"Sulaman","year":"2016","journal-title":"RSC Adv."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1426","DOI":"10.1016\/j.proeng.2012.09.425","article-title":"PbS colloidal quantum dot photodiodes for SWIR detection","volume":"47","author":"Heves","year":"2012","journal-title":"Procedia Eng."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"066210","DOI":"10.1088\/2053-1591\/ab0fb5","article-title":"Electrical and optical characterization of quantum dots PbS\/TiO2 based heterojunction as a SWIR detector and a proposed design of PbS\/TiO2 PeLED as a SWIR to visible upconversion device","volume":"6","author":"Hechster","year":"2019","journal-title":"Mater. Res. Express"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"728","DOI":"10.1039\/C6CC07916D","article-title":"Engineering the surface chemistry of lead chalcogenide nanocrystal solids to enhance carrier mobility and lifetime in optoelectronic devices","volume":"53","author":"Oh","year":"2017","journal-title":"Chem. Commun."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kwon, J.B., Kim, S., Lee, J., Park, C., Kim, O., Xu, B., Bae, J., and Kang, S. (2019). Uncooled short-wave infrared sensor based on PbS quantum dots using ZnO NPs. Nanomaterials, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/nano9070926"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8898","DOI":"10.1039\/c1jm11205h","article-title":"Towards controlled synthesis and better understanding of highly luminescent PbS\/CdS core\/shell quantum dots","volume":"21","author":"Zhao","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Mater. Chem."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"212","DOI":"10.1007\/s00339-019-2485-0","article-title":"Enhanced near-band edge emission in pulsed laser deposited ZnO\/c-sapphire nanocrystalline thin films","volume":"125","author":"Veeresh","year":"2019","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. A"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mee.2015.11.016","article-title":"Thickness effect of nanostructured ZnO thin films prepared by spray method on structural, morphological and optical properties","volume":"151","author":"Kumar","year":"2016","journal-title":"Microelectron. Eng."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"457","DOI":"10.1007\/s00339-019-2750-2","article-title":"Performance analysis of AlGaAs\/GaAs\/InGaAs-based asymmetric long-wavelength QWIP","volume":"125","author":"Billaha","year":"2019","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. A"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"980","DOI":"10.1109\/JQE.2005.848947","article-title":"High responsivity InP-InGaAs quantum-well infrared photodetectors: Characteristics and focal plane array performance","volume":"41","author":"Cellek","year":"2005","journal-title":"IEEE J. Quantum Electron."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1224","DOI":"10.1007\/s10825-021-01668-w","article-title":"Optimization of different structural parameters of GeSn\/SiGeSn Quantum Well Infrared Photodetectors (QWIPs) for low dark current and high responsivity","volume":"20","author":"Ghosh","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Comput. Electron."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113692","DOI":"10.1016\/j.physe.2019.113692","article-title":"Performance analysis of GeSn\/SiGeSn quantum well infrared photo-detector in terahertz wavelength region","volume":"115","author":"Ghosh","year":"2020","journal-title":"Phys. E Low-Dimens. Syst. Nanostructures"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"199","DOI":"10.1016\/j.infrared.2010.12.013","article-title":"Structural and chemical study of AlGaAs\/InGaAs based QWIPs","volume":"54","author":"Nedelcu","year":"2011","journal-title":"Infrared Phys. Technol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mahmodi, H., Hashim, M.R., and Allahyarzadeh, G. (2012, January 5\u20137). Design and Study of a GeSn-SiGeSn Single Quantum Well Structure for Infrared Photodetection. Proceedings of the 2012 International Conference on Enabling Science and Nanotechnology, Johor Bahru, Malaysia.","DOI":"10.1109\/ESciNano.2012.6149650"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3689","DOI":"10.1021\/acsphotonics.8b00704","article-title":"Room-temperature, wide-band, quantum well infrared photodetector for microwave optical links at 4.9 \u03bcm wavelength","volume":"5","author":"Rodriguez","year":"2018","journal-title":"ACS Photonics"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kim, M., Han, C.-Y., Yang, H., and Park, B. (2019). Band to band tunneling at the zinc oxide (ZnO) and lead selenide (PbSe) quantum dot contact; interfacial charge transfer at a ZnO\/PbSe\/ZnO probe device. Materials, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma12142289"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8929","DOI":"10.1038\/ncomms9929","article-title":"Inverted polymer fullerene solar cells exceeding 10% efficiency with poly(2-ethyl-2-oxazoline) nanodots on electron-collecting buffer layers","volume":"6","author":"Nam","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hammad, A.H., Abdel-wahab, M.S., Vattamkandathil, S., and Ansari, A.R. (2019). Growth and Correlation of the Physical and Structural Properties of Hexagonal Nanocrystalline Nickel Oxide Thin Films with Film Thickness. Coatings, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/coatings9100615"},{"key":"ref_35","first-page":"3","article-title":"Study of Physical Properties of Nanocrystalline NiO Thin Films Prepared by Spray Pyrolysis Technique","volume":"5","author":"Gavale","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Nanosci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21060","DOI":"10.1007\/s10854-022-08910-6","article-title":"Effect of annealing temperature on the physical properties of NiO thin films and ITO\/NiO\/Al Schottky diodes","volume":"33","author":"Hossain","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Mater. Sci. Mater. Electron."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2400784","DOI":"10.1002\/pssa.202400784","article-title":"Thermal Annealing Effect on Properties of Nickel Oxide (NiO) Thin Films for Photovoltaic Applications","volume":"222","author":"Sathyan","year":"2025","journal-title":"Phys. Status Solidi A"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101102","DOI":"10.1063\/1.5140255","article-title":"High quality silicon: Colloidal quantum dot heterojunction based infrared photodetector","volume":"116","author":"Xiao","year":"2020","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Lett."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165501","DOI":"10.1088\/1361-6528\/ac47d3","article-title":"High-sensitivity hybrid PbSe\/ITZO thin film-based phototransistor detecting from 2100 to 2500 nm near-infrared illumination","volume":"33","author":"Shikoh","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nanotechnology"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2200844","DOI":"10.1002\/advs.202200844","article-title":"Colloidal III\u2013V quantum dot photodiodes for short-wave infrared photodetection","volume":"9","author":"Leemans","year":"2022","journal-title":"Adv. Sci."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2226","DOI":"10.1021\/acsphotonics.2c01145","article-title":"Bi2S3 electron transport layer incorporation for high-performance heterostructure HgTe colloidal quantum dot infrared photodetectors","volume":"10","author":"Yang","year":"2023","journal-title":"ACS Photonics"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1155\/2022\/2940382","article-title":"Lead Selenium Colloidal Quantum Dots for 400\u20132600\u2009nm Broadband Photodetectors","volume":"2022","author":"He","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Nanomater."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8403","DOI":"10.1021\/acsami.9b19486","article-title":"Amorphous ZnO\/PbS quantum dots heterojunction for efficient responsivity broadband photodetectors","volume":"12","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2198","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.inorgchem.6b02832","article-title":"Solvothermal synthesis of Cu2SnS3 quantum dots and their application in near-infrared photodetectors","volume":"56","author":"Dias","year":"2017","journal-title":"Inorg. Chem."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"236","DOI":"10.1038\/s41566-023-01345-3","article-title":"Silver telluride colloidal quantum dot infrared photodetectors and image sensors","volume":"18","author":"Wang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat. Photonics"}],"container-title":["Nanomaterials"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-4991\/15\/14\/1107\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T18:10:39Z","timestamp":1760033439000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-4991\/15\/14\/1107"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,16]]},"references-count":45,"journal-issue":{"issue":"14","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,7]]}},"alternative-id":["nano15141107"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/nano15141107","relation":{},"ISSN":["2079-4991"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2079-4991","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,16]]}}}