{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T01:46:36Z","timestamp":1760060796833,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":68,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"19","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1759968000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nanomaterials"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The development of snake venom-loaded nanobiosystems based on smart biopolymers represents a promising therapeutic approach in several biomedical research fields. Specifically, the western diamondback rattlesnake (Crotalus atrox) contains various bioactive peptides and proteins with reported antitumor activity. This research aimed to establish a simplistic, facile and straightforward protocol for preparing chitosan-g-poly(N-vinylcaprolactam) nanoparticles containing C. atrox venom for potential use as a therapeutic nanocarrier against breast carcinoma cell lines. Herein, the physicochemical properties of venom-loaded nanoparticles were evaluated by FTIR, DLS, and SDS-PAGE. Also, the biological properties of both C. atrox venom and Cs-Venom NPs such as hemagglutination and hemolysis activity were evaluated in vitro. Finally, we evaluated their cytotoxic activity against two breast carcinoma cell lines (T-47D and MDA-MB-231). The most suitable formulation exhibited a hydrodynamic size of 222 nm, a \u03b6-potential of 42.0 mV and an encapsulation efficiency of 88.6%. C. atrox venom exhibited hemagglutination at concentrations &gt;15 \u00b5g\/mL but, no hemagglutination or hemolysis was observed for the CS-Venom NPs. Lastly, the IC50 of Cs-Venom NPs was determined for the T-47D and MDA-MB-231 cell lines, at 61.7 and 59.0 \u00b5g\/mL, respectively. Thus, Cs-Venom NPs exhibit promising properties that can be considered a feasible alternative for developing controlled-release therapeutic systems.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/nano15191538","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T16:54:31Z","timestamp":1760028871000},"page":"1538","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Chitosan-graft-poly(N-vinylcaprolactam) Nanoparticles Containing Crotalus atrox Snake Venom: Biological and Physicochemical Characterization"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Serena Sophia","family":"Rudy","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Life Sciences, University of Applied Sciences and Arts Northwestern Switzerland, Hofacker Strasse 30, 4132 Muttenz, Switzerland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8430-763X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jorge","family":"Jimenez-Canale","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Research in Polymers and Materials, University of Sonora, Hermosillo 83000, Sonora, Mexico"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0800-4754","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jose A.","family":"Sarabia-Sainz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Research in Physics, University of Sonora, Hermosillo 83000, Sonora, Mexico"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0481-8689","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ana Mar\u00eda","family":"Guzm\u00e1n Partida","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Research in Food and Development, Food Science Research Group, Gustavo Enrique Astiazaran Rosas 46, Hermosillo 83304, Sonora, Mexico"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3461-0029","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alexel J.","family":"Burgara-Estrella","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Research in Physics, University of Sonora, Hermosillo 83000, Sonora, Mexico"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6019-858X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Erika","family":"Silva-Campa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Research in Physics, University of Sonora, Hermosillo 83000, Sonora, Mexico"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8586-3387","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Aracely","family":"Angulo Molina","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Research in Physics, University of Sonora, Hermosillo 83000, Sonora, Mexico"},{"name":"Department of Chemical-Biological Sciences, University of Sonora, Hermosillo 83000, Sonora, Mexico"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8239-2356","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marcelino","family":"Montiel-Herrera","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Sonora, Hermosillo 83000, Sonora, Mexico"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3438-9785","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nelly","family":"Flores-Ram\u00edrez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Wood Engineering and Technology, Universidad Michoacana de San Nicol\u00e1s de Hidalgo, Morelia 58030, Michoac\u00e1n, Mexico"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2390-2344","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Paul","family":"Zavala-Rivera","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemical Engineering and Metallurgy, University of Sonora, Hermosillo 83000, Sonora, Mexico"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3927-0556","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Daniel","family":"Fern\u00e1ndez-Quiroz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemical Engineering and Metallurgy, University of Sonora, Hermosillo 83000, Sonora, Mexico"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1736","DOI":"10.1021\/bm9001377","article-title":"Chitosan-Alginate Blended Nanoparticles as Carriers for the Transmucosal Delivery of Macromolecules","volume":"10","author":"Goycoolea","year":"2009","journal-title":"Biomacromolecules"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Krishna Rao, K.S.V., Suresh Reddy, K.V.N., and Alle, M. 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