{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,15]],"date-time":"2026-10-15T21:42:34Z","timestamp":1792100554262,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":140,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"21","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,25]],"date-time":"2025-10-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1761350400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nanomaterials"],"abstract":"<jats:p>ZnO nanostructures have attracted attention as transducer materials in optical biosensing platforms due to their wide bandgap, defect-mediated photoluminescence, high surface-to-volume ratio, and tunable morphology. This review examines how the dimensionality of ZnO nanostructures affects biosensor performance, particularly in terms of charge transport, signal transduction, and biomolecule immobilization. The synthesis approaches are discussed, highlighting how they influence crystallinity, defect density, and surface functionalization potential. The impact of immobilization strategies on sensor stability and sensitivity is also assessed. The role of ZnO in various optical detection schemes, including photoluminescence, surface plasmon resonance (SPR), localized (LSPR), fluorescence, and surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS), is reviewed, with emphasis on label-free and real-time detection. Representative case studies demonstrate the detection of clinically and environmentally relevant targets, such as glucose, dopamine, cancer biomarkers, and SARS-CoV-2 antigens, with limits of detection in the pico- to femtomolar range. Recent developments in ZnO-based hybrid systems and their integration into fiber-optic and microfluidic platforms are explored as scalable solutions for portable, multiplexed diagnostics. The review concludes by outlining current challenges related to reproducibility, long-term operational stability, and surface modification standardization. This work provides a framework for understanding structure\u2013function relationships in ZnO-based biosensors and highlights future directions for their development in biomedical and environmental monitoring applications.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/nano15211627","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,27]],"date-time":"2025-10-27T02:50:48Z","timestamp":1761533448000},"page":"1627","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":16,"title":["A Review on ZnO Nanostructures for Optical Biosensors: Morphology, Immobilization Strategies, and Biomedical Applications"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7690-459X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Amauri","family":"Serrano-L\u00e1zaro","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Instituto de Ciencias Aplicadas y Tecnolog\u00eda, Universidad Nacional Aut\u00f3noma de M\u00e9xico, Circuito Exterior S\/N, Coyoac\u00e1n, Ciudad de M\u00e9xico 04510, Mexico"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5022-297X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Karina","family":"Portillo-Cortez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centro de Nanociencias y Nanotecnolog\u00eda, Universidad Nacional Aut\u00f3noma de M\u00e9xico, Ensenada 22860, Mexico"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4630-104X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mar\u00eda Beatriz","family":"de la Mora Mojica","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Instituto de Ciencias Aplicadas y Tecnolog\u00eda, Universidad Nacional Aut\u00f3noma de M\u00e9xico, Circuito Exterior S\/N, Coyoac\u00e1n, Ciudad de M\u00e9xico 04510, Mexico"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5247-6719","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Juan C.","family":"Dur\u00e1n-\u00c1lvarez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Instituto de Ciencias Aplicadas y Tecnolog\u00eda, Universidad Nacional Aut\u00f3noma de M\u00e9xico, Circuito Exterior S\/N, Coyoac\u00e1n, Ciudad de M\u00e9xico 04510, Mexico"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3028","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matpr.2020.10.238","article-title":"A Review on ZnO: Fundamental Properties and Applications","volume":"49","author":"Sharma","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mater. Today Proc."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Borysiewicz, M.A. (2019). ZnO as a Functional Material, a Review. Crystals, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/cryst9100505"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100121","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sintl.2021.100121","article-title":"Sensors for Daily Life: A Review","volume":"2","author":"Javaid","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sens. Int."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6679","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matpr.2022.04.678","article-title":"A Review on the Recent Developments in the Materials Used for Sensors","volume":"62","author":"Varshney","year":"2022","journal-title":"Mater. Today Proc."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128176","DOI":"10.1016\/j.talanta.2025.128176","article-title":"Advances in Quantum Dot-Based Fluorescence Sensors for Environmental and Biomedical Detection","volume":"294","author":"Ghanbarlou","year":"2025","journal-title":"Talanta"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aca.2012.05.048","article-title":"Recent Advances in ZnO Nanostructures and Thin Films for Biosensor Applications: Review","volume":"737","author":"Arya","year":"2012","journal-title":"Anal. Chim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2017.07.056","article-title":"Analytical, Thermodynamical and Kinetic Characteristics of Photoluminescence Immunosensor for the Determination of Ochratoxin A","volume":"99","author":"Viter","year":"2018","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"152336","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apsusc.2021.152336","article-title":"Recyclable 3D SERS Devices Based on ZnO Nanorod-Grafted Nanowire Forests for Biochemical Sensing","volume":"582","author":"Liu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Appl. Surf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rodrigues, J., Pereira, S.O., Zanoni, J., Rodrigues, C., Br\u00e1s, M., Costa, F.M., and Monteiro, T. (2022). ZnO Transducers for Photoluminescence-Based Biosensors: A Review. Chemosensors, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/chemosensors10020039"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1216","DOI":"10.3390\/s100201216","article-title":"ZnO-Based Amperometric Enzyme Biosensors","volume":"10","author":"Zhao","year":"2010","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e19929","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2023.e19929","article-title":"Nanomaterials-Based Biosensor and Their Applications: A Review","volume":"9","author":"Malik","year":"2023","journal-title":"Heliyon"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1080\/10408436.2021.1886041","article-title":"Synthesis and Applications of ZnO Nanostructures (ZONSs): A Review","volume":"47","author":"Noman","year":"2022","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Solid. State Mater. Sci."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Portillo-Cortez, K., Mart\u00ednez, A., Bizarro, M., Garc\u00eda-S\u00e1nchez, M.F., G\u00fcell, F., Dutt, A., and Santana, G. (2021). ZnO Nanowires\/N719 Dye with Different Aspect Ratio as a Possible Photoelectrode for Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells. Front. Chem., 8.","DOI":"10.3389\/fchem.2020.604092"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3538","DOI":"10.1039\/D2EN00384H","article-title":"Tracing the Degradation Pathway of Temephos Pesticide Achieved with Photocatalytic ZnO Nanostructured Films","volume":"9","author":"Jayaraman","year":"2022","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Nano"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sbsr.2017.04.003","article-title":"LSPR Effects of Au Nanoparticles\/ZnO Nano-Composite Films","volume":"14","author":"Chou","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sens. Biosensing Res."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kim, H.M., Park, J.H., and Lee, S.K. (2019). Fiber Optic Sensor Based on ZnO Nanowires Decorated by Au Nanoparticles for Improved Plasmonic Biosensor. Sci. Rep., 9.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-52056-1"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39491","DOI":"10.1021\/acsomega.2c05591","article-title":"Current Challenges and Developments in Perovskite-Based Electrochemical Biosensors for Effective Theragnostics of Neurological Disorders","volume":"7","author":"Durai","year":"2022","journal-title":"ACS Omega"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pi\u00f1\u00f3n-Balderrama, C.I., Leyva-Porras, C., Conejo-D\u00e1vila, A.S., Estrada-Monje, A., Maldonado-Orozco, M.C., Reyes-L\u00f3pez, S.Y., and Zaragoza-Contreras, E.A. (2023). Electrochemical Perovskite-Based Sensors for the Detection of Relevant Biomarkers for Human Kidney Health. Chemosensors, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/chemosensors11090507"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"320","DOI":"10.1039\/D2MA00878E","article-title":"A Review on 2D-ZnO Nanostructure Based Biosensors: From Materials to Devices","volume":"4","author":"Krishna","year":"2022","journal-title":"Mater. Adv."},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"100051","article-title":"Surface Enhanced Raman Scattering Revealed by Interfacial Charge-Transfer Transitions","volume":"1","author":"Cong","year":"2020","journal-title":"Innovation"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"664","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2016.01.099","article-title":"Optical Biosensors Based on ZnO Nanostructures: Advantages and Perspectives","volume":"229","author":"Tereshchenko","year":"2016","journal-title":"A Review. Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Colni\u021b\u0103, A., Toma, V.A., Breze\u0219tean, I.A., Tahir, M.A., and Dina, N.E. (2023). A Review on Integrated ZnO-Based SERS Biosensors and Their Potential in Detecting Biomarkers of Neurodegenerative Diseases. Biosensors, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/bios13050499"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1038\/asiamat.2010.137","article-title":"Nanostructured Metal Oxide-Based Biosensors","volume":"3","author":"Solanki","year":"2011","journal-title":"NPG Asia Mater."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2950","DOI":"10.1039\/D4TB00184B","article-title":"ZnO Based 0-3D Diverse Nano-Architectures, Films and Coatings for Biomedical Applications","volume":"12","author":"Krishna","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Mater. Chem. B"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shahzad, S., Javed, S., and Usman, M. (2021). A Review on Synthesis and Optoelectronic Applications of Nanostructured ZnO. Front. Mater., 8.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmats.2021.613825"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137501","DOI":"10.1149\/1945-7111\/abb4f4","article-title":"Three Dimensional Zinc Oxide Nanostructures as an Active Site Platform for Biosensor: Recent Trend in Healthcare Diagnosis","volume":"167","author":"Napi","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Electrochem. Soc."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173333","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2024.173333","article-title":"Photoluminescence-Based Biosensor for the Detection of Antibodies against SARS-CoV-2 Virus Proteins by ZnO Tetrapod Structure Integrated within Microfluidic System","volume":"939","author":"Viter","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xin, Z., He, Q., Wang, S., Han, X., Fu, Z., Xu, X., and Zhao, X. (2022). Recent Progress in ZnO-Based Nanostructures for Photocatalytic Antimicrobial in Water Treatment: A Review. Appl. Sci., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/app12157910"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100255","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apsadv.2022.100255","article-title":"A Novel Soft Deposition Methodology for Textured ZnO:Al Thin Films as Efficient Transparent Conductive Oxide Layers","volume":"9","author":"Islas","year":"2022","journal-title":"Appl. Surf. Sci. Adv."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108530","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mssp.2024.108530","article-title":"Photocatalytic Activity of ZnO Films with Laser-Induced Dewetted Bimetallic NPs: Impact of Au\/Pd Ratio","volume":"179","author":"Bizarro","year":"2024","journal-title":"Mater. Sci. Semicond. Process."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Serrano-L\u00e1zaro, A., Verd\u00edn-Betancourt, F.A., Jayaraman, V.K., de Lourdes L\u00f3pez-Gonz\u00e1lez, M., Hern\u00e1ndez-Gordillo, A., Sierra-Santoyo, A., and Bizarro, M. (2020). Efficient Photocatalytic Elimination of Temephos Pesticide Using ZnO Nanoflowers. J. Photochem. Photobiol. A Chem., 393.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jphotochem.2020.112414"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Maafa, I.M. (2025). Potential of Zinc Oxide Nanostructures in Biosensor Application. Biosensors, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/bios15010061"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"250","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matlet.2018.10.026","article-title":"DNA Probe Functionalization on Different Morphologies of ZnO\/Au Nanowire for Bio-Sensing Applications","volume":"235","author":"Galdamez","year":"2019","journal-title":"Mater. Lett."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sytu, M.R.C., and Hahm, J.I. (2024). Principles and Applications of ZnO Nanomaterials in Optical Biosensors and ZnO Nanomaterial-Enhanced Biodetection. Biosensors, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/bios14100480"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shukla, A.K., Verma, M., and Acharya, A. (2020). Biomolecules Immobilized Nanomaterials and Their Biological Applications. Nanomaterial-Based Biomedical Applications in Molecular Imaging, Diagnostics and Therapy, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-981-15-4280-0_5"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1016\/j.talanta.2013.01.006","article-title":"Luminescent ZnO Quantum Dots for Sensitive and Selective Detection of Dopamine","volume":"107","author":"Zhao","year":"2013","journal-title":"Talanta"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2018.10.004","article-title":"Nanoimmunosensor Based on ZnO Nanorods for Ultrasensitive Detection of 17\u03b2-Estradiol","volume":"126","author":"Singh","year":"2019","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_38","first-page":"3993","article-title":"Growth of Aligned ZnO Nanowires via Modified Atmospheric Pressure Chemical Vapor Deposition","volume":"380","author":"Zhao","year":"2016","journal-title":"Phys. Lett. Sect. A Gen. At. Solid State Phys."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cesini, I., Kowalczyk, M., Lucantonio, A., D\u2019alesio, G., Kumar, P., Camboni, D., Massari, L., Pingue, P., De Simone, A., and Morgera, A.F. (2020). Seedless Hydrothermal Growth of ZnO Nanorods as a Promising Route for Flexible Tactile Sensors. Nanomaterials, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/nano10050977"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.1186\/s40580-020-00235-6","article-title":"Low-Temperature Large-Area Fabrication of ZnO Nanowires on Flexible Plastic Substrates by Solution-Processible Metal-Seeded Hydrothermal Growth","volume":"7","author":"Yoo","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nano. Converg."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"293","DOI":"10.1186\/1556-276X-7-293","article-title":"Direct Synthesis of Vertically Aligned ZnO Nanowires on FTO Substrates Using a CVD Method and the Improvement of Photovoltaic Performance","volume":"7","author":"Lu","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nanoscale Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1002\/cvde.200706674","article-title":"Growth of ZnO Nanostructures Produced by MOCVD: A Study of the Effect of the Substrate","volume":"14","author":"Scalisi","year":"2008","journal-title":"Chem. Vap. Depos."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"646","DOI":"10.1007\/s11082-022-03979-z","article-title":"Variety of ZnO Nanostructured Materials Prepared by PECVD","volume":"54","author":"Mochalov","year":"2022","journal-title":"Opt. Quantum Electron."},{"key":"ref_44","first-page":"29583","article-title":"Morphology Transition of ZnO from Thin Film to Nanowires on Silicon and Its Correlated Enhanced Zinc Polarity Uniformity and Piezoelectric Responses","volume":"12","author":"Bui","year":"2020","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"034002","DOI":"10.1088\/1361-6641\/ac4b8a","article-title":"Memristive Devices Based on Single ZnO Nanowires-from Material Synthesis to Neuromorphic Functionalities","volume":"37","author":"Milano","year":"2022","journal-title":"Semicond. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhu, C., and Wang, X. (2025). Nanomaterial ZnO Synthesis and Its Photocatalytic Applications: A Review. Nanomaterials, 15.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202503.1891.v1"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apsusc.2016.08.050","article-title":"Synthesis of ZnO Nanopencils Using Wet Chemical Method and Its Investigation as LPG Sensor","volume":"390","author":"Shimpi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Appl. Surf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"60","DOI":"10.1007\/s43939-025-00201-1","article-title":"A Review of Recent Advances in ZnO Nanostructured Thin Films by Various Deposition Techniques","volume":"5","author":"Toma","year":"2025","journal-title":"Discov. Mater"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139539","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tsf.2022.139539","article-title":"Precursor Mediated and Defect Engineered ZnO Nanostructures Using Thermal Chemical Vapor Deposition for Green Light Emission","volume":"762","author":"Tiwari","year":"2022","journal-title":"Thin. Solid Films"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-57585-4_7","article-title":"Vapor\u2013Solid Growth Mechanism","volume":"307","author":"Mohammad","year":"2020","journal-title":"Synth. Nanomater."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2131","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ceramint.2020.09.049","article-title":"Tailoring Zinc Oxide Nanowire Architectures Collectively by Catalytic Vapor-Liquid-Solid Growth, Catalyst-Free Vapor-Solid Growth, and Low-Temperature Hydrothermal Growth","volume":"47","author":"Oh","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ceram. Int."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2815","DOI":"10.1021\/jz301103s","article-title":"Tuning the Growth Mechanism of ZnO Nanowires by Controlled Carrier and Reaction Gas Modulation in Thermal CVD","volume":"3","author":"Menzel","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Phys. Chem. Lett."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hedrich, C., Haugg, S., Pacarizi, L., Furlan, K.P., Blick, R.H., and Zierold, R. (2019). Low-Temperature Vapor-Solid Growth of ZnO Nanowhiskers for Electron Field Emission. Coatings, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/coatings9110698"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1499","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.200701612","article-title":"Vapor-Solid-Solid Growth Mechanism Driven by Epitaxial Match between Solid AuZn Alloy Catalyst Particles and ZnO Nanowires at Low Temperatures","volume":"20","author":"Campos","year":"2008","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5725","DOI":"10.1021\/am507857x","article-title":"3D Silver Nanoparticles Decorated Zinc Oxide\/Silicon Heterostructured Nanomace Arrays as High-Performance Surface-Enhanced Raman Scattering Substrates","volume":"7","author":"Huang","year":"2015","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"509","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vacuum.2017.03.010","article-title":"Effect of the Seed Layer on the Growth and Orientation of the ZnO Nanowires: Consequence on Structural and Optical Properties","volume":"146","author":"Serrano","year":"2017","journal-title":"Vacuum"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2070","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mssp.2013.06.017","article-title":"One Dimensional-ZnO Nanostructures: Synthesis, Properties and Environmental Applications","volume":"16","author":"Udom","year":"2013","journal-title":"Mater. Sci. Semicond. Process"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4367","DOI":"10.1111\/jace.16270","article-title":"Designing Zinc Oxide Nanostructures (Nanoworms, Nanoflowers, Nanowalls, and Nanorods) by Pulsed Laser Ablation Technique for Gas-Sensing Application","volume":"102","author":"Labis","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Am. Ceram. Soc."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1184","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tsf.2010.08.066","article-title":"PLD Grown ZnO-K3[Fe(CN)6] Composite Thin Film for Biosensing Application","volume":"519","author":"Saha","year":"2010","journal-title":"Thin Solid. Film."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"572","DOI":"10.1021\/cg301640v","article-title":"Metal-Seeded Growth Mechanism of ZnO Nanowires","volume":"13","author":"Simon","year":"2013","journal-title":"Cryst. Growth Des."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"760","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2017.10.009","article-title":"Development of Sensitive Impedimetric Urea Biosensor Using DC Sputtered Nano-ZnO on TiO2 Thin Film as a Novel Hierarchical Nanostructure Transducer","volume":"256","author":"Rahmanian","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2768302","DOI":"10.1063\/1.2768302","article-title":"Cholesterol Biosensor Based on Rf Sputtered Zinc Oxide Nanoporous Thin Film","volume":"91","author":"Singh","year":"2007","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Lett."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110061","DOI":"10.1016\/j.microc.2024.110061","article-title":"Cu Encrusted RF Sputtered ZnO Thin Film Based Electrochemical Immunosensor for Highly Sensitive Detection of IL-6 in Human Blood Serum","volume":"199","author":"Prabhu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Microchem. J."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100112","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nwnano.2025.100112","article-title":"Flexible Piezoelectric Energy Harvester Made of Vertically-Aligned ZnO Nanowires Hydrothermally-Grown by Template-Assisted Synthesis in Poled PVDF","volume":"10","author":"Sigallon","year":"2025","journal-title":"Nano Trends"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"348","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bsecv.2022.05.004","article-title":"Sol\u2013Gel\/Hydrothermal Synthesis of Well-Aligned ZnO Nanorods","volume":"62","author":"Torres","year":"2023","journal-title":"Bolet\u00edn Soc. Espa\u00f1ola Cer\u00e1mica Vidr."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"462","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mssp.2015.10.017","article-title":"Wet Chemistry Synthesis of ZnO Crystals with Hexamethylenetetramine(HMTA): Understanding the Role of HMTA in the Formation of ZnO Crystals","volume":"41","author":"Feng","year":"2016","journal-title":"Mater. Sci. Semicond. Process"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Khan, M.F., Ansari, A.H., Hameedullah, M., Ahmad, E., Husain, F.M., Zia, Q., Baig, U., Zaheer, M.R., Alam, M.M., and Khan, A.M. (2016). Sol-Gel Synthesis of Thorn-like ZnO Nanoparticles Endorsing Mechanical Stirring Effect and Their Antimicrobial Activities: Potential Role as Nano-Antibiotics. Sci. Rep., 6.","DOI":"10.1038\/srep27689"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7081","DOI":"10.1039\/D4DT00697F","article-title":"Strong Thickness Dependence in Thin Film Photocatalytic Heterojunctions: The ZnO-Bi2O3 Case Study","volume":"53","author":"Alonso","year":"2024","journal-title":"Dalton Trans."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1700406","DOI":"10.1002\/pssa.201700406","article-title":"Growth Mechanism of ZnO Thin Films Grown by Spray Pyrolysis Using Diethylzinc Solution","volume":"215","author":"Imai","year":"2018","journal-title":"Phys. Status Solidi A Appl. Mater. Sci."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"299","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaap.2017.07.021","article-title":"Low-Temperature Spray-Coating of High-Performing ZnO:Al Films for Transparent Electronics","volume":"127","author":"Marouf","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2720","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2010.09.031","article-title":"ZnO Quantum Dot Labeled Immunosensor for Carbohydrate Antigen 19-9","volume":"26","author":"Gu","year":"2011","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"988","DOI":"10.1166\/jbn.2015.2048","article-title":"ZnO Nanorod-Based Non-Enzymatic Optical Glucose Biosensor","volume":"11","author":"Sarangi","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Biomed. Nanotechnol."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"377","DOI":"10.1021\/jp808001c","article-title":"Tyrosinase Immobilization on ZnO Nanorods for Phenol Detection","volume":"113","author":"Gu","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Phys. Chem. B"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1338","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2014.06.005","article-title":"Scanning Fluorescence-Based Ultrasensitive Detection of Dengue Viral DNA on ZnO Thin Films","volume":"202","author":"Iyer","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2015.11.025","article-title":"Detection of Neisseria Meningitidis Using Surface Plasmon Resonance Based DNA Biosensor","volume":"78","author":"Kaur","year":"2016","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.1016\/j.colsurfa.2010.03.029","article-title":"ZnO Nanotetrapod Network as the Adsorption Layer for the Improvement of Glucose Detection via Multiterminal Electron-Exchange","volume":"361","author":"Lei","year":"2010","journal-title":"Colloids Surf. A Physicochem. Eng. Asp."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4764","DOI":"10.1039\/c3an00336a","article-title":"Rapid Microwave Synthesis of High Aspect-Ratio ZnO Nanotetrapods for Swift Bisphenol A Detection","volume":"138","author":"Qurashi","year":"2013","journal-title":"Analyst"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"158054","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cej.2024.158054","article-title":"Covalent Immobilization: A Review from an Enzyme Perspective","volume":"503","author":"Prabhakar","year":"2025","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.5757\/ASCT.2017.26.6.157","article-title":"An Overview of Techniques in Enzyme Immobilization","volume":"26","author":"Nguyen","year":"2017","journal-title":"Appl. Sci. Converg. Technol."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tiwari, S., Vinchurkar, M., Rao, V.R., and Garnier, G. (2017). Zinc Oxide Nanorods Functionalized Paper for Protein Preconcentration in Biodiagnostics. Sci. Rep., 7.","DOI":"10.1038\/srep43905"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"012013","DOI":"10.1088\/1742-6596\/924\/1\/012013","article-title":"Effect of Immobilization Technique on Performance ZnO Nanorods Based Enzymatic Electrochemical Glucose Biosensor","volume":"924","author":"Shukla","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Phys. Conf. Ser."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122499","DOI":"10.1016\/j.talanta.2021.122499","article-title":"Simultaneous and Sensitive Detection of Multiple Small Biological Molecules by Microfluidic Paper-Based Analytical Device Integrated with Zinc Oxide Nanorods","volume":"232","author":"Feng","year":"2021","journal-title":"Talanta"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"986","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2016.05.082","article-title":"FO-SPR Based Dextrose Sensor Using Ag\/ZnO Nanorods\/GOx for Insulinoma Detection","volume":"85","author":"Usha","year":"2016","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"378","DOI":"10.1016\/j.talanta.2019.03.064","article-title":"Zinc Oxide Nanorod Based Immunosensing Platform for the Determination of Human Leukemic Cells","volume":"200","author":"Tamashevski","year":"2019","journal-title":"Talanta"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1559","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbagen.2017.01.001","article-title":"New Approach to Biosensing of Co-Enzyme Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide (NADH) by Incorporation of Neutral Red in Aluminum Doped Nanostructured ZnO Thin Films","volume":"1861","author":"Fidal","year":"2017","journal-title":"Biochim. Biophys. Acta Gen. Subj."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ramesh, T., Foo, K.L., Haarindraprasad, R., Sam, A.J., and Solayappan, M. (2019). Gold-Hybridized Zinc Oxide Nanorods as Real-Time Low-Cost NanoBiosensors for Detection of Virulent DNA Signature of HPV-16 in Cervical Carcinoma. Sci. Rep., 9.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-53476-9"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111401","DOI":"10.1016\/j.msec.2020.111401","article-title":"Photoluminescence Label-Free Immunosensor for the Detection of Aflatoxin B1 Using Polyacrylonitrile\/Zinc Oxide Nanofibers","volume":"118","author":"Myndrul","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mater. Sci. Eng. C"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"763","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2016.09.071","article-title":"ZnO Films Formed by Atomic Layer Deposition as an Optical Biosensor Platform for the Detection of Grapevine Virus A-Type Proteins","volume":"92","author":"Tereshchenko","year":"2017","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1286","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2008.07.047","article-title":"Immobilization and Direct Electrochemistry of Glucose Oxidase on a Tetragonal Pyramid-Shaped Porous ZnO Nanostructure for a Glucose Biosensor","volume":"24","author":"Dai","year":"2009","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"495","DOI":"10.1016\/j.electacta.2013.11.088","article-title":"Electrodeposition of Enzymes-Integrated Mesoporous Composite Films by Interfacial Templating: A Paradigm for Electrochemical Biosensors","volume":"116","author":"Wang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Electrochim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2014.06.141","article-title":"ZnO Nanorods as Immobilization Layers for Interdigitated Capacitive Immunosensors","volume":"204","author":"Sanguino","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"132659","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2022.132659","article-title":"PCN-224\/Nano-Zinc Oxide Nanocomposite-Based Electrochemiluminescence Biosensor for HPV-16 Detection by Multiple Cycling Amplification and Hybridization Chain Reaction","volume":"372","author":"Wu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_93","first-page":"406","article-title":"A Review on Green Synthesis of Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles\u2014An Eco-Friendly Approach","volume":"3","author":"Agarwal","year":"2017","journal-title":"Resour.-Effic. Technol."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1868","DOI":"10.1039\/D1NA00880C","article-title":"ZnO Nanostructured Materials and Their Potential Applications: Progress, Challenges and Perspectives","volume":"4","author":"Raha","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nanoscale Adv."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tolubayeva, D.B., Gritsenko, L.V., Kedruk, Y.Y., Aitzhanov, M.B., Nemkayeva, R.R., and Abdullin, K.A. (2023). Effect of Hydrogen Plasma Treatment on the Sensitivity of ZnO Based Electrochemical Non-Enzymatic Biosensor. Biosensors, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/bios13080793"},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113501","DOI":"10.1063\/1.4792941","article-title":"Formation of a ZnO2 Layer on the Surface of Single Crystal ZnO Substrates with Oxygen Atoms by Hydrogen Peroxide Treatment","volume":"113","author":"Kashiwaba","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Appl. Phys."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijbiomac.2022.03.014","article-title":"Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles-Impregnated Chitosan Surfaces for Covalent Immobilization of Trypsin: Stability & Kinetic Studies","volume":"207","author":"Aggarwal","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol. Macromol."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"275","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2010.06.006","article-title":"ZnO Nanorods\/Au Hybrid Nanocomposites for Glucose Biosensor","volume":"26","author":"Wei","year":"2010","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"465","DOI":"10.1016\/j.msec.2017.05.065","article-title":"Functionalization of ZnO Nanoparticles by 3-Mercaptopropionic Acid for Aqueous Curcumin Delivery: Synthesis, Characterization, and Anticancer Assessment","volume":"79","author":"Ghaffari","year":"2017","journal-title":"Mater. Sci. Eng. C"},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Han, Z., Weng, Q., Lin, C., Yi, J., and Kang, J. (2018). Development of CdSe\u2013Zno Flower-Rod Core-Shell Structure Based Photoelectrochemical Biosensor for Detection of Norovirous RNA. Sensors, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/s18092980"},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sandhyarani, N. (2019). Surface Modification Methods for Electrochemical Biosensors. Electrochemical Biosensors, Elsevier.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-816491-4.00003-6"},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2014.02.022","article-title":"Biomolecule-Adsorption-Dependent Piezoelectric Output of ZnO Nanowire Nanogenerator and Its Application as Self-Powered Active Biosensor","volume":"57","author":"Zhao","year":"2014","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118105","DOI":"10.1016\/j.carbpol.2021.118105","article-title":"Polyvinyl Alcohol as a Crucial Omissible Polymer to Fabricate an Impedimetric Glucose Biosensor Based on Hierarchical 3D-NPZnO\/Chitosan","volume":"266","author":"Khazaei","year":"2021","journal-title":"Carbohydr. Polym."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"343317","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aca.2024.343317","article-title":"A ZnO-Nanorod\/PEDOT:PSS Nanocomposite Functionalized Bridge-like Membrane Type Nanomechanical Sensing Device for Ultrasensitive Blood Lead Detection","volume":"1331","author":"Yen","year":"2024","journal-title":"Anal. Chim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Drobysh, M., Ramanaviciene, A., Viter, R., Chen, C.F., Samukaite-Bubniene, U., Ratautaite, V., and Ramanavicius, A. (2022). Biosensors for the Determination of SARS-CoV-2 Virus and Diagnosis of COVID-19 Infection. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms23020666"},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"66","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jphotobiol.2013.01.004","article-title":"Controllable Synthesis of ZnO Nanoparticles and Their Morphology-Dependent Antibacterial and Optical Properties","volume":"120","author":"Talebian","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Photochem. Photobiol. B"},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cheng, L., Guo, R., Zheng, W., He, K., Geng, Y., Liu, L., Ai, Q., He, Y., Zhang, Y.N., and Zhao, Y. (2025). ZnO-Nafion Assisted Optical Fiber Dual-SPR Biosensor for Simultaneous Detection of Urea and Uric Acid Concentrations. Biosens. Bioelectron., 271.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2024.117076"},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21754","DOI":"10.1021\/acsami.2c22352","article-title":"Fluorescence-Enhanced Microfluidic Biosensor Platform Based on Magnetic Beads with Highly Stable ZnO Nanorods for Biomarker Detection","volume":"15","author":"Meeseepong","year":"2023","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces"},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Maiolo, L., Maita, F., Del Rio De Vicente, J.I., Lucarini, I., Strisciullo, G., Sablone, S., Liscio, A., Petrone, G., and Mussi, V. (2023). Silver-Coated ZnO Disordered Nanostructures as Low-Cost and Label-Free Raman Biosensing Platform for Fast Detection of Complex Organic Profiles. Biosens. Bioelectron. X, 13.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biosx.2023.100309"},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tamashevski, A., Harmaza, Y., Slobozhanina, E., Viter, R., and Iatsunskyi, I. (2020). Photoluminescent Detection of Human T-Lymphoblastic Cells by ZnO Nanorods. Molecules, 25.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules25143168"},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1670","DOI":"10.1021\/acsomega.3c08253","article-title":"Surface Modification of ZnO Nanotubes by Ag and Au Coatings of Variable Thickness: Systematic Analysis of the Factors Leading to UV Light Emission Enhancement","volume":"9","author":"Nowak","year":"2024","journal-title":"ACS Omega"},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100823","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chphi.2025.100823","article-title":"Mn-Doped ZnO Thin Films as a Platform for Reagentless Uric Acid Biosensor","volume":"10","author":"Naorem","year":"2025","journal-title":"Chem. Phys. Impact"},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106800","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jece.2021.106800","article-title":"ZnO Quantum Dots for Fluorescent Detection of Environmental Contaminants","volume":"9","author":"Guo","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Environ. Chem. Eng."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2685","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.200502616","article-title":"Nanoscale ZnO-Enhanced Fluorescence Detection of Protein Interactions","volume":"18","author":"Dorfman","year":"2006","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"378","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2011.07.052","article-title":"A Sensitive Diagnostic Assay of Rheumatoid Arthritis Using Three-Dimensional ZnO Nanorod Structure","volume":"28","author":"Ahn","year":"2011","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"285","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2015.08.050","article-title":"Fluorescence Enhancement and Multiple Protein Detection in ZnO Nanostructure Microfluidic Devices","volume":"75","author":"Sang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"368","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2017.08.003","article-title":"Enhanced Fluorescence Detection of Proteins Using ZnO Nanowires Integrated inside Microfluidic Chips","volume":"99","author":"Guo","year":"2018","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6080","DOI":"10.1039\/D1NJ00372K","article-title":"N-Doped Zinc Oxide as an Effective Fluorescence Sensor for Urea Detection","volume":"45","author":"Soundharraj","year":"2021","journal-title":"New J. Chem."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4090","DOI":"10.1039\/D0CC00567C","article-title":"Interfacial Charge-Transfer Transitions in ZnO Induced Exclusively by Adsorption of Aromatic Thiols","volume":"56","author":"Fujisawa","year":"2020","journal-title":"Chem. Commun."},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Barbillon, G. (2019). Fabrication and SERS Performances of Metal\/Si and Metal\/ZnO Nanosensors: A Review. Coatings, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/coatings9020086"},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110449","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nanoen.2024.110449","article-title":"Piezoelectric-Enhanced Ultrasensitive ZnO\/Ag Microcavity SERS Substrate for Dopamine Detection","volume":"133","author":"Deng","year":"2025","journal-title":"Nano Energy"},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93644","DOI":"10.1039\/C5RA13280K","article-title":"Branched Gold Nanoparticles on ZnO 3D Architecture as Biomedical SERS Sensors","volume":"5","author":"Picciolini","year":"2015","journal-title":"RSC Adv."},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"130142","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2021.130142","article-title":"A SERS Biosensor Constructed by Calcined ZnO Substrate with High-Efficiency Charge Transfer for Sensitive Detection of Pb2+","volume":"343","author":"Zhang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"681","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2017.07.110","article-title":"Tuning the Visible Photoluminescence in Al Doped ZnO Thin Film and Its Application in Label-Free Glucose Detection","volume":"254","author":"Ghosh","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2028","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2014.2309277","article-title":"Application of Room Temperature Photoluminescence from ZnO Nanorods for Salmonella Detection","volume":"14","author":"Viter","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125641","DOI":"10.1016\/j.talanta.2024.125641","article-title":"1D ZnO\u2013Au Nanocomposites as Label-Free Photoluminescence Immunosensors for Rapid Detection of Listeria Monocytogenes","volume":"271","author":"Myndrul","year":"2024","journal-title":"Talanta"},{"key":"ref_127","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2021). Antigen-Detection in the Diagnosis of SARS-CoV-2 Infection Interim Guidance."},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e4","DOI":"10.1002\/viw2.4","article-title":"Promising Methods for Detection of Novel Coronavirus SARS-CoV-2","volume":"1","author":"Liu","year":"2020","journal-title":"View"},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1634","DOI":"10.1039\/D0LC01156H","article-title":"Point-of-Care Testing Detection Methods for COVID-19","volume":"21","author":"Song","year":"2021","journal-title":"Lab Chip"},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, Y., Huang, Z., Zhu, J., Li, C., Fang, Z., Chen, K., and Zhang, Y. (2023). An Updated Review of SARS-CoV-2 Detection Methods in the Context of a Novel Coronavirus Pandemic. Bioeng. Transl. Med., 8.","DOI":"10.1002\/btm2.10356"},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sportelli, M.C., Izzi, M., Loconsole, D., Sallustio, A., Picca, R.A., Felici, R., Chironna, M., and Cioffi, N. (2022). On the Efficacy of ZnO Nanostructures against SARS-CoV-2. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms23063040"},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Phan, L.M., Tieu, M.V., Pham, T.T., and Cho, S. (2021). Clinical Utility of Biosensing Platforms for Confirmation of Sars-CoV-2 Infection. Biosensors, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/bios11060167"},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"320","DOI":"10.1007\/s00604-024-06373-6","article-title":"Optical Biosensors for Diagnosis of COVID-19: Nanomaterial-Enabled Particle Strategies for Post Pandemic Era","volume":"191","author":"Tekin","year":"2024","journal-title":"Microchim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, X., Qin, Z., Fu, H., Li, T., Peng, R., Li, Z., Rini, J.M., and Liu, X. (2021). Enhancing the Performance of Paper-Based Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy Nanobiosensors: An Experimental Approach. Biosens Bioelectron.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2020.112672"},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2102046","DOI":"10.1002\/admi.202102046","article-title":"ZnO Nanowire-Based Early Detection of SARS-CoV-2 Antibody Responses in Asymptomatic Patients with COVID-19","volume":"9","author":"Kim","year":"2022","journal-title":"Adv. Mater. Interfaces"},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nunez, F.A., Castro, A.C., Daher, I.P., Cunha-Neto, E., Kalil, J., Boscardin, S.B., Lanfredi, A.J., Oliveira, V.L., and Alves, W.A. (2023). ZnO-Based Electrochemical Immunosensor to Assess Vaccine-Induced Antibody-Mediated Immunity against Wild-Type and Gamma SARS-CoV-2 Strains. Biosensors, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/bios13030371"},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vafabakhsh, M., Dadmehr, M., Kazemi Noureini, S., Es\u2019haghi, Z., Malekkiani, M., and Hosseini, M. (2023). Paper-Based Colorimetric Detection of COVID-19 Using Aptasenor Based on Biomimetic Peroxidase like Activity of ChF\/ZnO\/CNT Nano-Hybrid. Spectrochim. Acta. A Mol. Biomol. Spectrosc., 301.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.saa.2023.122980"},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9925","DOI":"10.1039\/D5TB00630A","article-title":"Electrochemical Immunosensor for Antibody Recognition Against SARS-CoV-2 B-Cell Epitope: Impact of RBD Mutations on Antigen-Antibody Binding","volume":"13","author":"Nunez","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Mater. Chem. B"},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17883","DOI":"10.1039\/D3RA02560H","article-title":"Nano-Biosensor for SARS-CoV-2\/COVID-19 Detection: Methods, Mechanism and Interface Design","volume":"13","author":"Liu","year":"2023","journal-title":"RSC Adv."},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15419","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.analchem.3c01522","article-title":"Nanomaterial-Based Biosensors for SARS-CoV-2 and Future Epidemics","volume":"95","author":"Yari","year":"2023","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."}],"container-title":["Nanomaterials"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-4991\/15\/21\/1627\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,27]],"date-time":"2025-10-27T03:21:20Z","timestamp":1761535280000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-4991\/15\/21\/1627"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,25]]},"references-count":140,"journal-issue":{"issue":"21","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,11]]}},"alternative-id":["nano15211627"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/nano15211627","relation":{},"ISSN":["2079-4991"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2079-4991","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,25]]}}}