{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,29]],"date-time":"2026-06-29T13:38:10Z","timestamp":1782740290318,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":150,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"24","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,16]],"date-time":"2025-12-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1765843200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"International Scientific Research Cooperation Incubation Project of International Campus","award":["GJ202506"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["GJ202506"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["61974128"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["61974128"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Open Research Funding from the State Key Laboratory of Silicon and Advanced Semiconductor Materials","award":["SKL2024-11"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SKL2024-11"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nanomaterials"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Two-dimensional materials and their van der Waals heterostructures have shown great potential in quantum physics, flexible electronics, and optoelectronic devices. However, interfacial bubbles originated from trapped air, solvent residues, adsorbed molecules and reaction byproducts remain a key limitation to performance. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the formation mechanisms, characteristics, impacts, and optimization strategies related to bubbles in 2D heterostructures. We first summarize common fabrication approaches for constructing 2D heterostructures and discuss the mechanisms of bubble formation together with their physicochemical features. Then, we introduce characterization techniques ranging from macroscopic morphological observation to atomic-scale interfacial analysis, including optical microscopy, atomic force microscopy, transmission electron microscopy, and spectroscopic methods systematically. The effects of bubbles on the mechanical, electrical, thermal, and optical properties of 2D materials are subsequently examined. Finally, we compare key interface optimization strategies\u2014such as thermal annealing, chemical treatments, AFM-based cleaning, electric field-driven approaches, clean assembly and AI-assisted methods. We demonstrate that, although substantial advances have been made in understanding interfacial bubbles, key fundamental challenges persist. Future breakthroughs will require the combined advancement of mechanistic insight, in situ characterization, and process engineering. Moreover, with the rapid adoption of AI and autonomous experimental platforms in materials fabrication and data analysis, AI-enabled process optimization and real-time characterization are emerging as key enablers for achieving high-cleanliness and scalable van der Waals heterostructures.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/nano15241888","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,16]],"date-time":"2025-12-16T17:22:58Z","timestamp":1765905778000},"page":"1888","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Bubbles in 2D Materials: Formation Mechanisms, Impacts, and Removal Strategies for Next-Generation Electronic Devices"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0005-1592-9175","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kaitai","family":"Du","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"ZJU-UIUC Institute, International Campus, Zhejiang University, Haining 314400, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Baoshi","family":"Qiao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"ZJU-UIUC Institute, International Campus, Zhejiang University, Haining 314400, China"},{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Silicon and Advanced Semiconductor Materials, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xiaolei","family":"Ding","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"ZJU-UIUC Institute, International Campus, Zhejiang University, Haining 314400, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1941-1200","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Changjin","family":"Huang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 639798, Singapore"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1317-5470","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Huan","family":"Hu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"ZJU-UIUC Institute, International Campus, Zhejiang University, Haining 314400, China"},{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Fluid Power & Mechatronic Systems, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"666","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1102896","article-title":"Electric field effect in atomically thin carbon films","volume":"306","author":"Novoselov","year":"2004","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"419","DOI":"10.1038\/nature12385","article-title":"Van der Waals heterostructures","volume":"499","author":"Geim","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136805","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevLett.105.136805","article-title":"Atomically Thin MoS2: A New Direct-Gap Semiconductor","volume":"105","author":"Mak","year":"2010","journal-title":"Phys. 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