{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,30]],"date-time":"2026-07-30T11:36:35Z","timestamp":1785411395305,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":42,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,7]],"date-time":"2026-05-07T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1778112000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000060","name":"National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["AI134770"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["AI134770"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000060","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["AI134770"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["AI134770"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/043z4tv69","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nanomaterials"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Fungal infections are an escalating health threat, especially in hard-to-treat biofilm-associated infections. Candida species are the most widespread drivers of wound biofilm and biomedical device-associated infections. In this study, biodegradable nanoemulsions (BNEs) were fabricated by encapsulating active components of three different essential oils\u2014carvacrol (C-BNE), geraniol (G-BNE), and eugenol (E-BNE)\u2014in a polymeric scaffold with a biodegradable crosslinker. The antibiofilm efficacy of BNEs was assessed against 2-day-old biofilms of multiple Candida species. C-BNE showed maximum effectiveness against all fungal biofilms as compared to G-BNE and E-BNE. Confocal microscopy further demonstrated that C-BNE efficiently penetrated the biofilm and killed the fungal cells by compromising cell membrane integrity. Overall, this study highlights the potential of essential oil-loaded nanoemulsions against drug-resistant biofilm-associated fungal infections.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/nano16100574","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,7]],"date-time":"2026-05-07T14:05:46Z","timestamp":1778162746000},"page":"574","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Phytochemical-Loaded Biodegradable Nanoemulsions for Eradication of Fungal Biofilms"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0008-0524-9573","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Muhammad Aamir","family":"Hassan","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemistry, University of Massachusetts Amherst, 710 North Pleasant Street, Amherst, MA 01003, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0008-6666-9088","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Harini","family":"Chandrababu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemistry, University of Massachusetts Amherst, 710 North Pleasant Street, Amherst, MA 01003, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9177-4559","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jungmi","family":"Park","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemistry, University of Massachusetts Amherst, 710 North Pleasant Street, Amherst, MA 01003, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5184-5439","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Vincent M.","family":"Rotello","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemistry, University of Massachusetts Amherst, 710 North Pleasant Street, Amherst, MA 01003, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,7]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bongomin, F., Gago, S., Oladele, R.O., and Denning, D.W. (2017). Global and Multi-National Prevalence of Fungal Diseases-Estimate Precision. J. Fungi, 3.","DOI":"10.3390\/jof3040057"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e428","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(23)00692-8","article-title":"Global Incidence and Mortality of Severe Fungal Disease","volume":"24","author":"Denning","year":"2024","journal-title":"Lancet Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Barantsevich, N., and Barantsevich, E. (2022). Diagnosis and Treatment of Invasive Candidiasis. Antibiotics, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics11060718"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.1016\/j.archoralbio.2016.01.005","article-title":"Influence of Candida krusei and Candida glabrata on Candida albicans Gene Expression in In Vitro Biofilms","volume":"64","author":"Barros","year":"2016","journal-title":"Arch. Oral Biol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1093\/mmy\/myaa031","article-title":"Update on Candida krusei, a Potential Multidrug-Resistant Pathogen","volume":"59","author":"Jamiu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Med. Mycol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101168","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mycmed.2021.101168","article-title":"COVID-19 and Candida duobushaemulonii Superinfection: A Case Report","volume":"31","author":"Awada","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Mycol. Med."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ciurea, C.N., Kosovski, I.-B., Mare, A.D., Toma, F., Pintea-Simon, I.A., and Man, A. (2020). Candida and Candidiasis-Opportunism versus Pathogenicity: A Review of the Virulence Traits. Microorganisms, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms8060857"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1038\/nrmicro.2017.107","article-title":"Development and Regulation of Single- and Multi-Species Candida albicans Biofilms","volume":"16","author":"Lohse","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cavalheiro, M., and Teixeira, M.C. (2018). Candida Biofilms: Threats, Challenges, and Promising Strategies. Front. Med., 5.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmed.2018.00028"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1007\/s00294-023-01263-5","article-title":"Morphogenic Plasticity: The Pathogenic Attribute of Candida albicans","volume":"69","author":"Prasad","year":"2023","journal-title":"Curr. Genet."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e64682","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.64682","article-title":"Evolution of the Complex Transcription Network Controlling Biofilm Formation in Candida Species","volume":"10","author":"Mancera","year":"2021","journal-title":"eLife"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rajendran, R., Sherry, L., Lappin, D.F., Nile, C.J., Smith, K., Williams, C., Munro, C.A., and Ramage, G. (2014). Extracellular DNA Release Confers Heterogeneity in Candida albicans Biofilm Formation. BMC Microbiol., 14.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12866-014-0303-6"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"407","DOI":"10.1590\/0074-02760160166","article-title":"Candida duobushaemulonii: An Emerging Rare Pathogenic Yeast Isolated from Recurrent Vulvovaginal Candidiasis in Brazil","volume":"111","author":"Boatto","year":"2016","journal-title":"Mem. Inst. Oswaldo Cruz"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ramos, L.S., Mello, T.P., Branquinha, M.H., and Santos, A.L.S. (2020). Biofilm Formed by Candida haemulonii Species Complex: Structural Analysis and Extracellular Matrix Composition. J. Fungi, 6.","DOI":"10.3390\/jof6020046"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"De Oliveira Santos, G.C., Vasconcelos, C.C., Lopes, A.J.O., de Sousa Cart\u00e1genes, M.S., Filho, A.K.D.B., do Nascimento, F.R.F., Ramos, R.M., Pires, E.R.R.B., de Andrade, M.S., and Rocha, F.M.G. (2018). Candida Infections and Therapeutic Strategies: Mechanisms of Action for Traditional and Alternative Agents. Front. Microbiol., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2018.01351"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1038\/s44259-023-00007-2","article-title":"Molecular Mechanisms Governing Antifungal Drug Resistance","volume":"1","author":"Lee","year":"2023","journal-title":"npj Antimicrob. Resist."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"D\u2019agostino, M., Tesse, N., Frippiat, J.P., Machouart, M., and Debourgogne, A. (2019). Essential Oils and Their Natural Active Compounds Presenting Antifungal Properties. Molecules, 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules24203713"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107287","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biotechadv.2018.08.004","article-title":"Advances in Nanoparticle and Microparticle Delivery Systems for Increasing the Dispersibility, Stability, and Bioactivity of Phytochemicals","volume":"38","author":"McClements","year":"2020","journal-title":"Biotechnol. Adv."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1039\/C9EN01127G","article-title":"Emerging Investigator Series: Polymeric Nanocarriers for Agricultural Applications: Synthesis, Characterization, and Environmental and Biological Interactions","volume":"7","author":"Shakiba","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Nano"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1849","DOI":"10.1080\/17425247.2025.2564865","article-title":"Targeting Bacterial Biofilms Using Polymer-Stabilized Nanoemulsions","volume":"22","author":"Abdelaziz","year":"2025","journal-title":"Expert Opin. Drug Deliv."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hassan, M.A., Noor, S., Park, J., Nabawy, A., Dedhiya, M., Patel, R., and Rotello, V.M. (2025). Gelatin Nanoemulsion-Based Co-Delivery of Terbinafine and Essential Oils for Treatment of Candida albicans Biofilms. Microorganisms, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms13010127"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6176","DOI":"10.1021\/jacs.8b03575","article-title":"Biodegradable Nanocomposite Antimicrobials for the Eradication of Multidrug-Resistant Bacterial Biofilms without Accumulated Resistance","volume":"140","author":"Landis","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Am. Chem. Soc."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13595","DOI":"10.1039\/D3NR01801F","article-title":"Biodegradable Nanoemulsion-Based Bioorthogonal Nanocatalysts for Intracellular Generation of Anticancer Therapeutics","volume":"15","author":"Nabawy","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nanoscale"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1590","DOI":"10.1021\/acsinfecdis.9b00134","article-title":"Phytochemical-Based Nanocomposites for the Treatment of Bacterial Biofilms","volume":"5","author":"Li","year":"2019","journal-title":"ACS Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Park, J., Mahida, N., Ho, G., Pena, E., Makabenta, J.M.V., Aneke, S., Jiang, M., Bouthillette, L.M., Holz, S.E., and Hassan, M.A. (2023). Integration of Antimicrobials and Delivery Systems: Synergistic Antibiofilm Activity with Biodegradable Nanoemulsions Incorporating Pseudopyronine Analogs. Antibiotics, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics12081240"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0216624","DOI":"10.1128\/spectrum.02166-24","article-title":"Effective Killing of Mycobacterium abscessus Biofilm by Nanoemulsion Delivery of Plant Phytochemicals","volume":"13","author":"Albano","year":"2025","journal-title":"Microbiol. Spectr."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nazzaro, F., Fratianni, F., Coppola, R., and Feo, V.D. (2017). Essential Oils and Antifungal Activity. Pharmaceuticals, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/ph10040086"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8896","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-88244-1","article-title":"Biofilm Eradication and Antifungal Mechanism of Action against Candida albicans of Cationic Dicephalic Surfactants with a Labile Linker","volume":"11","author":"Paluch","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122344","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biomaterials.2023.122344","article-title":"Antimicrobial-Loaded Biodegradable Nanoemulsions for Efficient Clearance of Intracellular Pathogens in Bacterial Peritonitis","volume":"302","author":"Makabenta","year":"2023","journal-title":"Biomaterials"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tuan, D.A., Uyen, P.V.N., Van Khuon, N., Binh, L.A., and Masak, J. (2024). Innovative Antifungal Strategies: Enhanced Biofilm Inhibition of Candida albicans by a Modified Tea Tree Oil Formulation. Front. Microbiol., 15.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2024.1518598"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijantimicag.2013.10.023","article-title":"Strength in Numbers: Antifungal Strategies against Fungal Biofilms","volume":"43","author":"Ramage","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"671","DOI":"10.1038\/nmeth.2089","article-title":"NIH Image to ImageJ: 25 years of image analysis","volume":"9","author":"Schneider","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nat. Methods"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101896","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jscs.2024.101896","article-title":"Antimicrobial Nanoemulsion: A Futuristic Approach in Antibacterial Drug Delivery System","volume":"28","author":"JP","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Saudi Chem. Soc."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1039\/C8NR05784B","article-title":"Enhanced Design and Formulation of Nanoparticles for Anti-Biofilm Drug Delivery","volume":"11","author":"Sims","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nanoscale"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"235","DOI":"10.5935\/0004-2749.20220033","article-title":"Comparative Analysis of Biofilm Formation by Candida albicans and Candida krusei in Different Types of Contact Lenses","volume":"85","author":"Fritsch","year":"2022","journal-title":"Arq. Bras. Oftalmol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"228","DOI":"10.3934\/microbiol.2025012","article-title":"Biofilm Production by the Multidrug-Resistant Fungus Candida haemulonii Is Affected by Aspartic Peptidase Inhibitor","volume":"11","author":"Lima","year":"2025","journal-title":"AIMS Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"286","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sjbs.2020.10.001","article-title":"Antifungal Activity of Nanoemulsion from Cleome Viscosa Essential Oil against Food-Borne Pathogenic Candida albicans","volume":"28","author":"Krishnamoorthy","year":"2021","journal-title":"Saudi J. Biol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1128\/mSphere.00729-19","article-title":"Nanoemulsion as an Effective Treatment against Human-Pathogenic Fungi","volume":"4","author":"Garcia","year":"2019","journal-title":"mSphere"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"181","DOI":"10.1080\/10773525.2018.1447320","article-title":"Antifungal Activity of Essential Oils against Fungi Isolated from Air","volume":"23","author":"Schroder","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Occup. Environ. Health"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Allagui, M.B., Moumni, M., and Romanazzi, G. (2023). Antifungal Activity of Thirty Essential Oils to Control Pathogenic Fungi of Postharvest Decay. Antibiotics, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics13010028"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jtv.2009.11.004","article-title":"Fibroblasts and Myofibroblasts in Wound Healing: Force Generation and Measurement","volume":"20","author":"Li","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Tissue Viability"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21818","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-78387-y","article-title":"Active Neutrophil Responses Counteract Candida albicans Burn Wound Infection of Ex Vivo Human Skin Explants","volume":"10","author":"Bulman","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."}],"container-title":["Nanomaterials"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-4991\/16\/10\/574\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,14]],"date-time":"2026-05-14T04:13:22Z","timestamp":1778732002000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-4991\/16\/10\/574"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,7]]},"references-count":42,"journal-issue":{"issue":"10","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5]]}},"alternative-id":["nano16100574"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/nano16100574","relation":{},"ISSN":["2079-4991"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2079-4991","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,7]]}}}