{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,30]],"date-time":"2026-07-30T13:15:52Z","timestamp":1785417352344,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":106,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,22]],"date-time":"2026-05-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1779408000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100009553","name":"Agentura Pro Zdravotnick\u00fd V\u00fdzkum \u010cesk\u00e9 Republiky","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["NW24-08-00473"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NW24-08-00473"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100009553","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"award":["NW24-08-00473"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NW24-08-00473"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/05m8t8e28","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nanomaterials"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The term bacterial biofilm refers to a complex community of microorganisms embedded within a self-produced matrix of extracellular polymeric substances. This structural organization creates an environment that, when present in an infectious context within a living organism, limits the effectiveness of conventional antibiotic therapy. Consequently, such conditions substantially promote the development of antibiotic resistance. The decline in the discovery of novel antibiotic agents, coupled with a concurrent increase in the prevalence of multidrug-resistant microorganisms, has intensified the search for alternative strategies to combat such infections. At the same time, advances in nanoscience have stimulated substantial research into the use of micro\/nanorobots for the eradication of bacterial biofilms. These devices, engineered at the micro- to nanoscale, are capable of targeted intervention in otherwise inaccessible sites. However, the development of such \u201cmicroscopic therapeutic agents\u201d is still at an early stage. To date, the vast majority of available data has been derived from in vitro studies, while evidence regarding their feasibility, safety, and therapeutic effects in living organisms remains limited. This review discusses their antimicrobial mechanisms and critically evaluates the current evidence concerning their in vivo applications.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/nano16110642","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,22]],"date-time":"2026-05-22T10:07:47Z","timestamp":1779444467000},"page":"642","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Use of Micro\/Nanorobots In Vivo for the Eradication of Bacterial Biofilm: A Review of Challenges and Strategies"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0008-3109-5117","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ondrej","family":"Musil","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, 1st Faculty of Medicine, General University Hospital in Prague, Charles University, 12808 Prague, Czech Republic"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Karel","family":"Kl\u00edma","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, 1st Faculty of Medicine, General University Hospital in Prague, Charles University, 12808 Prague, Czech Republic"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,22]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"56","article-title":"The Treasure Called Antibiotics","volume":"14","author":"Adedeji","year":"2016","journal-title":"Ann. 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