{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,30]],"date-time":"2026-09-30T03:18:43Z","timestamp":1790738323153,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":78,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"18","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,10]],"date-time":"2026-09-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1788998400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Science Committee of the Ministry of Education and Science of the Republic of Kazakhstan","award":["BR28712683"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["BR28712683"]}]},{"name":"Science Committee of the Ministry of Education and Science of the Republic of Kazakhstan","award":["AP32318715"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["AP32318715"]}]},{"name":"Science Committee of the Ministry of Education and Science of the Republic of Kazakhstan","award":["IRN BR24993225"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["IRN BR24993225"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nanomaterials"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Vanadium dioxide (VO2) is a prominent active material for reconfigurable nanophotonics because its reversible metal-insulator transition produces large changes in complex refractive index and electrical conductivity. The usable phase contrast, however, is not an intrinsic constant: it is governed by defect type and location, vanadium valence, oxygen stoichiometry, strain, crystallographic orientation, dimensionality, and the chemical, electrical, optical, and thermal boundary conditions imposed by interfaces. This focused narrative review develops a defect- and interface-centred framework linking VO2 phase physics to device-level optical modulation. Bulk, surface, grain-boundary, and heterointerface defects are distinguished, together with their effects on carriers, V-V bonding, phase stability, optical loss, and cycling reliability. Epitaxial and polycrystalline films, ultrathin layers, and nanostructures are compared across the visible, near-infrared, mid-infrared, and terahertz ranges. Thermal, optical, electrical, electrostatic, electrochemical, ionic, strain, and ferroelectric activation pathways are then compared according to volatility, speed, retention, reversibility, and endurance. Representative free-space metasurfaces, guided-wave modulators, adaptive emitters, and photonic memories are benchmarked separately to avoid mixing incomparable performance definitions. The resulting analysis shows that optical modulation, insertion loss, thermal overhead, ambient stability, and endurance are coupled through the same defect and interface landscape. Progress, therefore, requires coordinated control of phase purity, local chemistry, interface energetics, thermal transport, and architecture-specific performance reporting.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/nano16181132","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,10]],"date-time":"2026-09-10T10:27:21Z","timestamp":1789036041000},"page":"1132","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Defect and Interface Engineering of VO2 for Reconfigurable Nanophotonics"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4302-7185","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ardak","family":"Ainabayev","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Physics and Technology, Satbayev University, Almaty 050032, Kazakhstan"},{"name":"Nazarbayev University Research Administration, Nazarbayev University, Astana 010000, Kazakhstan"},{"name":"School of Physics and Centre for Research on Adaptive Nanostructures and Nanodevices (CRANN), Trinity College Dublin, D02 PN40 Dublin, Ireland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8079-6293","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zinetula","family":"Insepov","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Nazarbayev University Research Administration, Nazarbayev University, Astana 010000, Kazakhstan"},{"name":"School of Nuclear Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4761-7409","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kurbangali","family":"Tynyshtykbayev","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Physics and Technology, Satbayev University, Almaty 050032, Kazakhstan"},{"name":"Nazarbayev University Research Administration, Nazarbayev University, Astana 010000, Kazakhstan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eaat3100","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aat3100","article-title":"Spatiotemporal Light Control with Active Metasurfaces","volume":"364","author":"Shaltout","year":"2019","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"465","DOI":"10.1038\/nphoton.2017.126","article-title":"Phase-Change Materials for Non-Volatile Photonic Applications","volume":"11","author":"Wuttig","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Photonics"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110901","DOI":"10.1063\/5.0028093","article-title":"VO2 Nanophotonics","volume":"5","author":"Cueff","year":"2020","journal-title":"APL Photonics"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevLett.3.34","article-title":"Oxides Which Show a Metal-to-Insulator Transition at the N\u00e9el Temperature","volume":"3","author":"Morin","year":"1959","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. Lett."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"490","DOI":"10.1016\/0022-4596(71)90091-0","article-title":"The Two Components of the Crystallographic Transition in VO2","volume":"3","author":"Goodenough","year":"1971","journal-title":"J. Solid State Chem."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1750","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1150124","article-title":"Mott Transition in VO2 Revealed by Infrared Spectroscopy and Nano-Imaging","volume":"318","author":"Qazilbash","year":"2007","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"788","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRev.172.788","article-title":"Optical Properties of VO2 between 0.25 and 5 eV","volume":"172","author":"Verleur","year":"1968","journal-title":"Phys. Rev."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1050","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.nanolett.5b04122","article-title":"Active Optical Metasurfaces Based on Defect-Engineered Phase-Transition Materials","volume":"16","author":"Rensberg","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nano Lett."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3961","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.nanolett.9b01246","article-title":"Phase Modulation with Electrically Tunable Vanadium Dioxide Phase-Change Metasurfaces","volume":"19","author":"Kim","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nano Lett."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2561","DOI":"10.1021\/acsphotonics.7b01384","article-title":"Epitaxial VO2 Nanostructures: A Route to Large-Scale, Switchable Dielectric Metasurfaces","volume":"5","author":"Ligmajer","year":"2018","journal-title":"ACS Photonics"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41186","DOI":"10.1021\/acsami.2c10194","article-title":"Electrically Driven Reprogrammable Vanadium Dioxide Metasurface Using Binary Control for Broadband Beam Steering","volume":"14","author":"Proffit","year":"2022","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7159","DOI":"10.1021\/acsnano.8b03031","article-title":"Nanoscale Control of Oxygen Defects and Metal\u2013Insulator Transition in Epitaxial Vanadium Dioxides","volume":"12","author":"Sharma","year":"2018","journal-title":"ACS Nano"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"034008","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevApplied.7.034008","article-title":"Evolution of Metallicity in Vanadium Dioxide by Creation of Oxygen Vacancies","volume":"7","author":"Zhang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. Appl."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3913","DOI":"10.1515\/nanoph-2022-0153","article-title":"Tunable Optical Anisotropy in Epitaxial Phase-Change VO2 Thin Films","volume":"11","author":"John","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nanophotonics"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2917","DOI":"10.1021\/acsanm.2c05297","article-title":"Epitaxial Grown VO2 with Suppressed Hysteresis and Low Room-Temperature Resistivity for High-Performance Thermal Sensor Applications","volume":"6","author":"Ainabayev","year":"2023","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Nano Mater."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24432","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.jpcc.3c06057","article-title":"Tailoring Epitaxial VO2 Thin Films with Tunable Properties via Spray Pyrolysis","volume":"127","author":"Ainabayev","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Phys. Chem. C"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"581","DOI":"10.1038\/s41427-018-0061-2","article-title":"Recent Progress in the Phase-Transition Mechanism and Modulation of Vanadium Dioxide Materials","volume":"10","author":"Shao","year":"2018","journal-title":"NPG Asia Mater."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"875","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mattod.2018.03.029","article-title":"Recent Progresses on Physics and Applications of Vanadium Dioxide","volume":"21","author":"Liu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Mater. Today"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, Y., Xiong, W., Chen, W., and Zheng, Y. (2021). Recent Progress on Vanadium Dioxide Nanostructures and Devices: Fabrication, Properties, Applications and Perspectives. Nanomaterials, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/nano11020338"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100747","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mser.2023.100747","article-title":"Recent Progress in Vanadium Dioxide: The Multi-Stimuli Responsive Material and Its Applications","volume":"155","author":"Bhupathi","year":"2023","journal-title":"Mater. Sci. Eng. R Rep."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e02649","DOI":"10.1002\/adom.202502649","article-title":"Phase-Change VO2 Enabled Optoelectronic Devices with Switching Dynamics","volume":"13","author":"Wang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Adv. Opt. Mater."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2541","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevB.5.2541","article-title":"Structural Aspects of the Metal\u2013Insulator Transitions in Cr-Doped VO2","volume":"5","author":"Marezio","year":"1972","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. B"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1977","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-58813-x","article-title":"Probing Phase Transition in VO2 with the Novel Observation of Low-Frequency Collective Spin Excitation","volume":"10","author":"Basu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"205103","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevB.74.205103","article-title":"Metal\u2013Insulator Phase Transition in a VO2 Thin Film Observed with Terahertz Spectroscopy","volume":"74","author":"Jepsen","year":"2006","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. B"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"195102","DOI":"10.1063\/1.5049747","article-title":"Thermal Hysteresis Measurement of the VO2 Dielectric Function for Its Metal\u2013Insulator Transition by Visible\u2013IR Ellipsometry","volume":"124","author":"Corvisier","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Appl. Phys."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1265","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-023-37000-2","article-title":"Transient Dynamics of the Phase Transition in VO2 Revealed by Mega-Electron-Volt Ultrafast Electron Diffraction","volume":"14","author":"Xu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4621","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevB.54.4621","article-title":"Mid-Infrared Properties of a VO2 Film near the Metal\u2013Insulator Transition","volume":"54","author":"Choi","year":"1996","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. B"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6707","DOI":"10.1021\/acsaelm.5c01132","article-title":"Pulsed Laser and Atomic Layer Deposition of CMOS-Compatible Vanadium Dioxide: Enabling Ultrathin Phase-Change Films","volume":"7","author":"Varini","year":"2025","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Electron. Mater."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"732","DOI":"10.1038\/nnano.2009.266","article-title":"Strain Engineering and One-Dimensional Organization of Metal\u2013Insulator Domains in Single-Crystal Vanadium Dioxide Beams","volume":"4","author":"Cao","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nat. Nanotechnol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8884","DOI":"10.1021\/ja902054w","article-title":"Depressed Phase Transition in Solution-Grown VO2 Nanostructures","volume":"131","author":"Whittaker","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Am. Chem. Soc."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1771","DOI":"10.1134\/S1063784220110213","article-title":"Morphology and Structure of Defected Niobium Oxide Nonuniform Arrays Formed by Anodizing Bilayer Al\/Nb Systems","volume":"65","author":"Pligovka","year":"2020","journal-title":"Tech. Phys."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"583","DOI":"10.1063\/1.1446215","article-title":"Metal\u2013Insulator Transition of VO2 Thin Films Grown on TiO2 (001) and (110) Substrates","volume":"80","author":"Muraoka","year":"2002","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Lett."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"661","DOI":"10.1038\/nphys2733","article-title":"Control of the Metal\u2013Insulator Transition in Vanadium Dioxide by Modifying Orbital Occupancy","volume":"9","author":"Aetukuri","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nat. Phys."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2201326","DOI":"10.1002\/adom.202201326","article-title":"Room Temperature Phase Transition of W-Doped VO2 by Atomic Layer Deposition on 200 mm Si Wafers and Flexible Substrates","volume":"10","author":"Sun","year":"2022","journal-title":"Adv. Opt. Mater."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8555","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-65279-4","article-title":"Temperature-Dependent Infrared Ellipsometry of Mo-Doped VO2 Thin Films across the Insulator to Metal Transition","volume":"10","author":"Agarwal","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111615","DOI":"10.1016\/j.materresbull.2021.111615","article-title":"Nb-Doped VO2 Thin Films with Enhanced Thermal Sensing Performance for Uncooled Infrared Detection","volume":"146","author":"Li","year":"2022","journal-title":"Mater. Res. Bull."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3396","DOI":"10.1021\/am2006299","article-title":"Work Function of Vanadium Dioxide Thin Films across the Metal\u2013Insulator Transition and the Role of Surface Nonstoichiometry","volume":"3","author":"Ko","year":"2011","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2958","DOI":"10.1021\/acsphotonics.0c01241","article-title":"Reconfigurable Multistate Optical Systems Enabled by VO2 Phase Transitions","volume":"7","author":"Duan","year":"2020","journal-title":"ACS Photonics"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36743","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-025-20752-w","article-title":"Interface-Induced Collective Phase Transition in VO2-Based Bilayers Studied by Layer-Selective Spectroscopy","volume":"15","author":"Shiga","year":"2025","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18554","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-75695-1","article-title":"Metal\u2013Insulator Transition Tuned by Oxygen Vacancy Migration across TiO2\/VO2 Interface","volume":"10","author":"Lu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8728","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-45436-0","article-title":"Thermophysical Characterisation of VO2 Thin Films Hysteresis and Its Application in Thermal Rectification","volume":"9","author":"Hamaoui","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"734","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matt.2019.04.004","article-title":"Mitigating Deterioration of Vanadium Dioxide Thermochromic Films by Interfacial Encapsulation","volume":"1","author":"Chang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Matter"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5319","DOI":"10.1021\/acsami.6b13217","article-title":"Continuous Tuning of Phase Transition Temperature in VO2 Thin Films on c-Cut Sapphire Substrates via Strain Variation","volume":"9","author":"Jian","year":"2017","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"034307","DOI":"10.1063\/1.4906122","article-title":"Influence of Grain Size on Transition Temperature of Thermochromic VO2","volume":"117","author":"Miller","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Appl. Phys."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"224113","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevB.65.224113","article-title":"Size Effects in the Structural Phase Transition of VO2 Nanoparticles","volume":"65","author":"Lopez","year":"2002","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. B"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28051","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.26.028051","article-title":"Giant impact of self-photothermal on light-induced ultrafast insulator-to-metal transition in VO2 nanofilms at terahertz frequency","volume":"26","author":"Zhai","year":"2018","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47421","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.477910","article-title":"Femtosecond laser-induced phase transition in VO2 films","volume":"30","author":"Wang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1900104","DOI":"10.1002\/qute.201900104","article-title":"Optically Induced Phase Change for Magnetoresistance Modulation","volume":"3","author":"Wei","year":"2020","journal-title":"Adv. Quantum Technol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1729","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-022-29456-5","article-title":"Photo-Induced Non-Volatile VO2 Phase Transition for Neuromorphic Ultraviolet Sensors","volume":"13","author":"Li","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"237401","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevLett.87.237401","article-title":"Femtosecond Structural Dynamics in VO2 during an Ultrafast Solid\u2013Solid Phase Transition","volume":"87","author":"Cavalleri","year":"2001","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. Lett."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"445","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1253779","article-title":"A Photoinduced Metal-Like Phase of Monoclinic VO2 Revealed by Ultrafast Electron Diffraction","volume":"346","author":"Morrison","year":"2014","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"056601","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevLett.110.056601","article-title":"Role of Thermal Heating on the Voltage-Induced Insulator\u2013Metal Transition in VO2","volume":"110","author":"Zimmers","year":"2013","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. Lett."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6128","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.201302046","article-title":"Local Temperature Redistribution and Structural Transition during Joule-Heating-Driven Conductance Switching in VO2","volume":"25","author":"Kumar","year":"2013","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.1038\/s41566-023-01324-8","article-title":"Electrically Tunable VO2\u2013Metal Metasurface for Mid-Infrared Switching, Limiting and Nonlinear Isolation","volume":"18","author":"King","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat. Photonics"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3139","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-026-69904-0","article-title":"Switching Speed Limits in Electrically Driven VO2 Structural Mott\u2013Peierls Transition","volume":"17","author":"Pofelski","year":"2026","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1402","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1230512","article-title":"Suppression of Metal\u2013Insulator Transition in VO2 by Electric-Field-Induced Oxygen Vacancy Formation","volume":"339","author":"Jeong","year":"2013","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1500131","DOI":"10.1002\/aelm.201500131","article-title":"Modulation of Metal\u2013Insulator Transition in VO2 by Electrolyte-Gating-Induced Protonation","volume":"2","author":"Shibuya","year":"2016","journal-title":"Adv. Electron. Mater."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1802003","DOI":"10.1002\/adfm.201802003","article-title":"Gate-Induced Massive and Reversible Phase Transition of VO2 Channels Using Solid-State Proton Electrolytes","volume":"28","author":"Jo","year":"2018","journal-title":"Adv. Funct. Mater."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5931","DOI":"10.1038\/srep05931","article-title":"Voltage Control of Metal\u2013Insulator Transition and Non-Volatile Ferroelastic Switching of Resistance in VOx\/PMN\u2013PT Heterostructures","volume":"4","author":"Nan","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2203097","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.202203097","article-title":"Nonvolatile Control of Metal\u2013Insulator Transition in VO2 by Ferroelectric Gating","volume":"34","author":"Lee","year":"2022","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1518","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1176580","article-title":"Memory Metamaterials","volume":"325","author":"Driscoll","year":"2009","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2064","DOI":"10.1021\/nl1002153","article-title":"Active Terahertz Nanoantennas Based on VO2 Phase Transition","volume":"10","author":"Seo","year":"2010","journal-title":"Nano Lett."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26527","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.25.026527","article-title":"Silicon Waveguide Optical Switch with Embedded Phase Change Material","volume":"25","author":"Miller","year":"2017","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4147","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.27.004147","article-title":"Silicon Waveguide Optical Modulator Driven by Metal\u2013Insulator Transition of Vanadium Dioxide Cladding Layer","volume":"27","author":"Shibuya","year":"2019","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1175","DOI":"10.1021\/acsphotonics.5b00244","article-title":"Optically Monitored Electrical Switching in VO2","volume":"2","author":"Markov","year":"2015","journal-title":"ACS Photonics"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161104","DOI":"10.1063\/1.4918938","article-title":"Thermal Tuning of Infrared Resonant Absorbers Based on Hybrid Gold\u2013VO2 Nanostructures","volume":"106","author":"Kocer","year":"2015","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Lett."},{"key":"ref_67","first-page":"041004","article-title":"Vanadium Dioxide as a Natural Disordered Metamaterial: Perfect Thermal Emission and Large Broadband Negative Differential Thermal Emittance","volume":"3","author":"Kats","year":"2013","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. X"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"086101","DOI":"10.1063\/1.5025947","article-title":"Inverting the Thermal Radiative Contrast of Vanadium Dioxide by Metasurfaces Based on Localized Gap-Plasmons","volume":"3","author":"Ito","year":"2018","journal-title":"APL Photonics"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4101","DOI":"10.1515\/nanoph-2022-0020","article-title":"VO2 Metasurface Smart Thermal Emitter with High Visual Transparency for Passive Radiative Cooling Regulation in Space and Terrestrial Applications","volume":"11","author":"Sun","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nanophotonics"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1900162","DOI":"10.1002\/lpor.201900162","article-title":"Spatially Resolved Dynamically Reconfigurable Multilevel Control of Thermal Emission","volume":"14","author":"Xu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Laser Photonics Rev."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"212","DOI":"10.1016\/S0924-4247(01)00495-2","article-title":"Characterizations of VO2-Based Uncooled Microbolometer Linear Array","volume":"90","author":"Chen","year":"2001","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators A Phys."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2302390","DOI":"10.1002\/adom.202302390","article-title":"Tunable Far-Infrared Polarization Imaging Based on VO2 Metasurfaces","volume":"12","author":"Ma","year":"2024","journal-title":"Adv. Opt. Mater."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1038\/s44310-024-00038-1","article-title":"Ultra-High Endurance Silicon Photonic Memory Using Vanadium Dioxide","volume":"1","author":"Seoane","year":"2024","journal-title":"npj Nanophotonics"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2734","DOI":"10.1021\/acsphotonics.9b00708","article-title":"Broadband, Integrated, Micron-Scale, All-Optical Si3N4\/VO2 Modulators with pJ Switching Energy","volume":"6","author":"Wong","year":"2019","journal-title":"ACS Photonics"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2888","DOI":"10.1109\/JLT.2021.3054942","article-title":"All-Optical Hybrid VO2\/Si Waveguide Absorption Switch at Telecommunication Wavelengths","volume":"39","author":"Parra","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Light. Technol."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.1021\/acsphotonics.1c01410","article-title":"Integrated Hybrid VO2\u2013Silicon Optical Memory","volume":"9","author":"Jung","year":"2022","journal-title":"ACS Photonics"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2001721","DOI":"10.1002\/adom.202001721","article-title":"Sub-Picosecond Response Time of a Hybrid VO2:Silicon Waveguide at 1550 nm","volume":"9","author":"Hallman","year":"2021","journal-title":"Adv. Opt. Mater."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8475","DOI":"10.1038\/ncomms9475","article-title":"Wafer-Scale Growth of VO2 Thin Films Using a Combinatorial Approach","volume":"6","author":"Zhang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."}],"container-title":["Nanomaterials"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-4991\/16\/18\/1132\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,10]],"date-time":"2026-09-10T10:49:31Z","timestamp":1789037371000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-4991\/16\/18\/1132"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,10]]},"references-count":78,"journal-issue":{"issue":"18","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9]]}},"alternative-id":["nano16181132"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/nano16181132","relation":{},"ISSN":["2079-4991"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2079-4991","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,10]]}}}