{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,9]],"date-time":"2026-10-09T15:19:36Z","timestamp":1791559176453,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":107,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"18","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,10]],"date-time":"2026-09-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1788998400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Science Committee of the Ministry of Science and Higher Education of the Republic of Kazakhstan","award":["AP23485698"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["AP23485698"]}]},{"award":["AP23485698"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["AP23485698"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/05tyne317","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nanomaterials"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Tin-based halide perovskites have emerged as one of the most promising classes of lead-free materials for next-generation photovoltaic technologies. Their favorable optoelectronic properties, narrow band gaps, and structural compatibility with the ABX3 perovskite framework position them as viable alternatives to conventional lead-based absorbers. This review summarizes the fundamental structural principles governing Sn-based perovskites, including the role of A-site cations, halide composition, tolerance factor, and octahedral distortion in determining phase stability and electronic structure. Recent advances in material engineering\u2014such as additive-assisted crystallization, interface modification, precursor chemistry optimization, and two-dimensional\/three-dimensional heterostructure formation\u2014have significantly improved film quality, reduced defect densities, and enhanced device performance. Despite these achievements, challenges remain, particularly the spontaneous oxidation of Sn2+ to Sn4+, uncontrolled crystallization, and limited operational stability. Strategies aimed at stabilizing the Sn2+ oxidation state, suppressing self-doping, and improving charge transport are discussed in detail. The review also highlights the strategic importance of tin as a sustainable element for renewable energy technologies and provides an overview of global tin resources relevant to future photovoltaic deployment. Overall, tin-based perovskites represent a compelling pathway toward environmentally responsible and high-efficiency solar cells, with continued research expected to accelerate their transition from laboratory materials to commercially viable technologies.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/nano16181138","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,10]],"date-time":"2026-09-10T14:11:22Z","timestamp":1789049482000},"page":"1138","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Tin-Based Perovskite Solar Cells: Structural Fundamentals, Material Engineering, and Prospects for Lead-Free Photovoltaics"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Bedelbek","family":"Nurbayev","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Photovoltaic Phenomena and Devices, Institute of Physics and Technology, Satbayev University, Ibraimov Str., 11, Almaty 050013, Kazakhstan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Elena","family":"Dmitriyeva","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Photovoltaic Phenomena and Devices, Institute of Physics and Technology, Satbayev University, Ibraimov Str., 11, Almaty 050013, Kazakhstan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Aigul","family":"Shongalova","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Photovoltaic Phenomena and Devices, Institute of Physics and Technology, Satbayev University, Ibraimov Str., 11, Almaty 050013, Kazakhstan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4813-8490","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ainagul","family":"Kemelbekova","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Photovoltaic Phenomena and Devices, Institute of Physics and Technology, Satbayev University, Ibraimov Str., 11, Almaty 050013, Kazakhstan"},{"name":"Department of Materials Science, Nanotechnology and Engineering Physics, Satbayev University, Satbayev Str., 22a, Almaty 050013, Kazakhstan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Johansson, T.B., Patwardhan, A.P., Naki\u0107enovi\u0107, N., and Gomez Echeverri, L. 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