{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,18]],"date-time":"2026-09-18T05:04:05Z","timestamp":1789707845585,"version":"4.0.1"},"reference-count":46,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"18","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,16]],"date-time":"2026-09-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1789516800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nanomaterials"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Metasurfaces enable spatially programmable control of far-field wavefronts, while broadband molecular sensing relies on strong near-field confinement and enhanced light\u2013matter interaction. The mismatch between far-field radiation and near-field localization makes their monolithic integration in a single shared aperture challenging. Here, we report an electrically tunable terahertz (THz) VO2-based metasurface designed under temporal coupled mode theory (TCMT). The device adopts a metal\u2013insulator\u2013metal (MIM) architecture integrating a VO2 microbridge and bowtie antenna, enabling bias-controlled switching between molecular fingerprint sensing and programmable wavefront manipulation in a shared aperture. At zero bias, the metasurface operates in an over-coupled regime, supporting a broadband low Q resonance over 0.8\u20131.2 THz with strong local field enhancement for molecular fingerprint sensing demonstration, serving as a passive near-field sensing mode. Under the metallic state condition induced by the VO2 phase transition, the unit cell exhibits an approximately 180\u00b0 reflection phase shift with nearly invariant amplitude. An electrically assisted programmable addressing implementation is proposed by exploiting the electrothermal switching capability of VO2. Each unit cell thus functions as a 1-bit programmable meta-atom. By reconfiguring the spatial coding sequence, the device realizes anomalous reflection and beam splitting, which are further extended to refractive index sensing: thin analyte layers (&lt;10 \u03bcm) are detected via anomalous reflection, whereas thicker layers are detected via beam splitting when the anomalous beam is suppressed. This constitutes a far-field active sensing mode. Both functionalities originate from the same over-coupled radiative loss mechanism: enhanced near fields enable fingerprint sensing, while the open radiative channel supports far-field refractive index sensing through programmed phase coding. This shared aperture design unifies near-field and far-field, passive and active sensing, offering a compact platform for THz integrated sensing and communication.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/nano16181170","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,16]],"date-time":"2026-09-16T16:07:29Z","timestamp":1789574849000},"page":"1170","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Electrically Tunable VO2-Based Metasurface for Shared-Aperture Terahertz Molecular Fingerprint Sensing and Programmable Wavefront Manipulation"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-3074-051X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jiahe","family":"Wang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Air and Missile Defense College, Air Force Engineering University, Xi\u2019an 710051, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Wenlong","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Air and Missile Defense College, Air Force Engineering University, Xi\u2019an 710051, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5824-0838","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Xilai","family":"Zhao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Air and Missile Defense College, Air Force Engineering University, Xi\u2019an 710051, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Wenye","family":"Ji","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Air and Missile Defense College, Air Force Engineering University, Xi\u2019an 710051, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0001-1643-1185","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Xiongyu","family":"Liang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Air and Missile Defense College, Air Force Engineering University, Xi\u2019an 710051, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tong","family":"Cai","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Air and Missile Defense College, Air Force Engineering University, Xi\u2019an 710051, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9769-5491","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zhenxu","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Air and Missile Defense College, Air Force Engineering University, Xi\u2019an 710051, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jiangang","family":"Liang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Air and Missile Defense College, Air Force Engineering University, Xi\u2019an 710051, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1240","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-025-09275-6","article-title":"Metalasers with Arbitrarily Shaped Wavefronts","volume":"643","author":"Zeng","year":"2025","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1696","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-022-29374-6","article-title":"Electrically Driven Reprogrammable Phase-Change Metasurface Reaching 80% Efficiency","volume":"13","author":"Abdollahramezani","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"036003","DOI":"10.1117\/1.AP.8.3.036003","article-title":"Synergetic Near field Reconstruction and Far field Control for Ultrabroad Scattering in Multiband Camouflage Based on Concave Reflection Metasurface","volume":"8","author":"Qian","year":"2026","journal-title":"Adv. Photonics"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4567","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.201204850","article-title":"Broadband Terahertz Wave Deflection Based on C-Shape Complex Metamaterials with Phase Discontinuities","volume":"25","author":"Zhang","year":"2013","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2308453","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.202308453","article-title":"Advanced Terahertz Refractive Sensing and Fingerprint Recognition through Metasurface-Excited Surface Waves","volume":"36","author":"Zhang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"ref_6","first-page":"2410671","article-title":"Photon-Induced Ultrafast Multitemporal Programming of Terahertz Metadevices","volume":"36","author":"Zhang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e20890","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.202520890","article-title":"Space-Time Wavefront Synchronized Terahertz Metasurface","volume":"38","author":"Zhang","year":"2026","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"90","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eng.2025.04.023","article-title":"Real-Time Programmable Nonlinear Wavefront Shaping with Si Metasurface Driven by Genetic Algorithm","volume":"49","author":"Zheng","year":"2025","journal-title":"Engineering"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1038\/s41377-022-01046-6","article-title":"Active Terahertz Beam Steering Based on Mechanical Deformation of Liquid Crystal Elastomer Metasurface","volume":"12","author":"Zhuang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Light Sci. Appl."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2102589","DOI":"10.1002\/adom.202102589","article-title":"Multifield Controlled Terahertz Modulator Based on Silicon-Vanadium Dioxide Hybrid Metasurface","volume":"10","author":"Zhao","year":"2022","journal-title":"Adv. Opt. Mater."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1038\/s41565-021-01045-5","article-title":"Advances and Applications of Nanophotonic Biosensors","volume":"17","author":"Altug","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Nanotechnol."},{"key":"ref_12","first-page":"2510402","article-title":"Spatially Encoded Polaritonic Ultra-Strong Coupling in Gradient Metasurfaces with Epsilon-Near-Zero Modes","volume":"37","author":"Aigner","year":"2025","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2205053","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.202205053","article-title":"Experimental Realization of a Superdispersion-Enabled Ultrabroadband Terahertz Cloak","volume":"34","author":"Cai","year":"2022","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2200008","DOI":"10.1002\/adom.202200008","article-title":"Terahertz Metagrating Accordion for Dynamic Beam Steering","volume":"10","author":"Cheng","year":"2022","journal-title":"Adv. Opt. Mater."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2301787","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.202301787","article-title":"Ultrasensitive Molecular Fingerprint Retrieval Using Strongly Detuned Overcoupled Plasmonic Nanoantennas","volume":"35","author":"Li","year":"2023","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"60","DOI":"10.1038\/s41378-025-00905-7","article-title":"Surface-Enhanced Spectroscopy Technology Based on Metamaterials","volume":"11","author":"Li","year":"2025","journal-title":"Microsyst. Nanoeng."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1007\/s40820-024-01520-3","article-title":"Tailoring Light-Matter Interactions in Overcoupled Resonator for Biomolecule Recognition and Detection","volume":"17","author":"Li","year":"2025","journal-title":"Nano-Micro Lett."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2301505","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.202301505","article-title":"All-Optical Multiplexed Meta-Differentiator for Tri-Mode Surface Morphology Observation","volume":"35","author":"Liang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4838","DOI":"10.1021\/acsphotonics.4c01358","article-title":"Rapid On-Demand Design of Inverted All-Dielectric Metagratings for Trace Terahertz Molecular Fingerprint Sensing by Deep Learning","volume":"11","author":"Liu","year":"2024","journal-title":"ACS Photonics"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2104275","DOI":"10.1002\/smll.202104275","article-title":"Optically Controlled Ultrafast Terahertz Metadevices with Ultralow Pump Threshold","volume":"17","author":"Lou","year":"2021","journal-title":"Small"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1186\/s43074-023-00108-1","article-title":"Frequency Selective Fingerprint Sensor: The Terahertz Unity Platform for Broadband Chiral Enantiomers Multiplexed Signals and Narrowband Molecular AIT Enhancement","volume":"4","author":"Lyu","year":"2023","journal-title":"PhotonIX"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"066003","DOI":"10.1117\/1.AP.7.6.066003","article-title":"Electrically Controlled Real-Time Terahertz \u201cMicroladder\u201d Integrated with VO2 Patches for Broadband Holographic Encryption","volume":"7","author":"Ma","year":"2025","journal-title":"Adv. Photonics"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2000745","DOI":"10.1002\/adom.202000745","article-title":"An Over-Coupled Phase-Change Metasurface for Efficient Reflection Phase Modulation","volume":"8","author":"Park","year":"2020","journal-title":"Adv. Opt. Mater."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"260028","DOI":"10.29026\/oea.2026.260028","article-title":"Pixel-Controlled Programmable Metasurface as Phase-Type Spatial Terahertz Modulator","volume":"9","author":"Li","year":"2026","journal-title":"Opto-Electron. Adv."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e17748","DOI":"10.1002\/adfm.202517748","article-title":"3-Bit Parallel Logic Operations for Ultrafast Computing Based on Light-Driven Terahertz Metadevice","volume":"36","author":"Yuan","year":"2026","journal-title":"Adv. Funct. Mater."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"235503","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevLett.115.235503","article-title":"Tailor the Functionalities of Metasurfaces Based on a Complete Phase Diagram","volume":"115","author":"Qu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. Lett."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"243","DOI":"10.1038\/s41377-026-02308-3","article-title":"Local-Nonlocal Assisted Multifunctional Photonic Crystals","volume":"15","author":"Lv","year":"2026","journal-title":"Light Sci. Appl."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10083","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-025-65062-x","article-title":"Terahertz Integrated Sensing and Mobile Communications Empowered by a 220-GHz-Band Portable Device","volume":"16","author":"Wang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2832","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-026-69493-y","article-title":"Joint Communication and Sensing with Structured Beams Carrying Orbital Angular Momentum","volume":"17","author":"Shen","year":"2026","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"414","DOI":"10.1038\/s41928-026-01577-5","article-title":"Communication-Aware In-Memory Wireless Neural Networks","volume":"9","author":"Yang","year":"2026","journal-title":"Nat. Electron."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1491","DOI":"10.1038\/s41565-024-01728-9","article-title":"Electrically Tunable Space-Time Metasurfaces at Optical Frequencies","volume":"19","author":"Sisler","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat. Nanotechnol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5302","DOI":"10.1021\/acsphotonics.5c01592","article-title":"Enhanced Broadband Terahertz Trace Fingerprint Spectrum Utilizing Multiunit Fano Metasurfaces","volume":"12","author":"Sun","year":"2025","journal-title":"ACS Photonics"},{"key":"ref_33","first-page":"2202456","article-title":"Programmable Controlling of Multiple Spatial Harmonics via a Nonlinearly Phased Grating Metasurface","volume":"9","author":"Tian","year":"2022","journal-title":"Adv. Sci."},{"key":"ref_34","first-page":"2500480","article-title":"A Dual-Programmable Metasurface with Duplex Beam Steering for Full-Space Terahertz Communications","volume":"19","author":"Wang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Laser Photonics Rev."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"222","DOI":"10.1038\/s41377-026-02255-z","article-title":"Subarray Programmable Terahertz Metasurface for Optical Logic and High-Order Amplitude Modulation","volume":"15","author":"Wang","year":"2026","journal-title":"Light Sci. Appl."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2200975","DOI":"10.1002\/lpor.202200975","article-title":"Terahertz Silicon Metagratings: High-Efficiency Dispersive Beam Manipulation above Diffraction Cone","volume":"17","author":"Yang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Laser Photonics Rev."},{"key":"ref_37","first-page":"179","article-title":"A Programmable Metasurface Antenna That Approaches the Wireless Information Mapping Limit","volume":"8","author":"Wu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Nat. Electron."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"78","DOI":"10.1038\/s41377-023-01118-1","article-title":"Super-Reflector Enabled by Non-Interleaved Spin-Momentum-Multiplexed Metasurface","volume":"12","author":"Xu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Light Sci. Appl."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eadd1296","DOI":"10.1126\/sciadv.add1296","article-title":"Electrically Addressable Integrated Intelligent Terahertz Metasurface","volume":"8","author":"Chen","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Adv."},{"key":"ref_40","first-page":"2074","article-title":"Correlations between Terahertz Spectra and Molecular Structures of 20 Standard \u03b1-Amino Acids","volume":"58","author":"Wang","year":"2009","journal-title":"Acta Phys. Sin."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6526","DOI":"10.1021\/nl503104n","article-title":"Electrically Tunable Metasurface Perfect Absorbers for Ultrathin Mid-Infrared Optical Modulators","volume":"14","author":"Yao","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nano Lett."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4814","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-023-40511-7","article-title":"Over-Coupled Resonator for Broadband Surface Enhanced Infrared Absorption (SEIRA)","volume":"14","author":"Paggi","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1038\/s41377-025-02009-3","article-title":"Missing Harmonic Dynamics in Generalized Snell\u2019s Law: Revealing Full-Channel Characteristics of Gradient Metasurfaces","volume":"14","author":"Zhang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Light Sci. Appl."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eadd4816","DOI":"10.1126\/sciadv.add4816","article-title":"Plasmonic Bound States in the Continuum to Tailor Light-Matter Coupling","volume":"8","author":"Aigner","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Adv."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4888","DOI":"10.1364\/OL.612882","article-title":"Broadband Achromatic Illusion via a Transmission-Reflection-Integrated Metasurface","volume":"51","author":"Li","year":"2026","journal-title":"Opt. Lett."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2400825","DOI":"10.1002\/lpor.202400825","article-title":"Ultrasensitive Terahertz Fingerprint Retrieval with Multiple-BIC-Enabled Meta-Sensors","volume":"19","author":"Yang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Laser Photonics Rev."}],"container-title":["Nanomaterials"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-4991\/16\/18\/1170\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,18]],"date-time":"2026-09-18T04:17:02Z","timestamp":1789705022000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-4991\/16\/18\/1170"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,16]]},"references-count":46,"journal-issue":{"issue":"18","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9]]}},"alternative-id":["nano16181170"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/nano16181170","relation":{},"ISSN":["2079-4991"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2079-4991","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,16]]}}}