{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,1]],"date-time":"2026-10-01T06:44:39Z","timestamp":1790837079565,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":63,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2018,7,24]],"date-time":"2018-07-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1532390400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["31360207 and 31370716"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["31360207 and 31370716"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Guangxi President Research Funding","award":["16449-02"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["16449-02"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nanomaterials"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Graphene microcrystal (GMC) is a type of glassy carbon fabricated from lignin, in which the microcrystals of graphene are chemically bonded by sp3 carbon atoms, forming a glass-like microcrystal structure. The lignin is refined from sugarcane bagasse using an ethanol-based organosolv technique which is used for the fabrication of GMC by two technical schemes: The pyrolysis reaction of lignin in a tubular furnace at atmospheric pressure; and the hydrothermal carbonization (HTC) of lignin at lower temperature, followed by pyrolysis at higher temperature. The existence of graphene nanofragments in GMC is proven by Raman spectra and XRD patterns; the ratio of sp2 carbon atoms to sp3 carbon atoms is demonstrated by XPS spectra; and the microcrystal structure is observed in the high-resolution transmission electron microscope (HRTEM) images. Temperature and pressure have an important impact on the quality of GMC samples. With the elevation of temperature, the fraction of carbon increases, while the fraction of oxygen decreases, and the ratio of sp2 to sp3 carbon atoms increases. In contrast to the pyrolysis techniques, the HTC technique needs lower temperatures because of the high vapor pressure of water. In general, with the help of biorefinery, the biomass material, lignin, is found to be qualified and sustainable material for the manufacture of GMC. Lignin acts as a renewable substitute for the traditional raw materials of glassy carbon, copolymer resins of phenol formaldehyde, and furfuryl alcohol-phenol.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/nano8080565","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,7,24]],"date-time":"2018-07-24T11:51:38Z","timestamp":1532433098000},"page":"565","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":34,"title":["Fabrication and Characterization of Graphene Microcrystal Prepared from Lignin Refined from Sugarcane Bagasse"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"8","author":[{"given":"Pei-Duo","family":"Tang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"State key Laboratory of Bioenergy Enzyme Technology, National Engineering Research Center for Non-Food Biorefinery, Guangxi Academy of Sciences, Nanning 530007, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0395-2328","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Qi-Shi","family":"Du","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State key Laboratory of Bioenergy Enzyme Technology, National Engineering Research Center for Non-Food Biorefinery, Guangxi Academy of Sciences, Nanning 530007, China"},{"name":"Gordon Life Science Institute, 53 South Cottage Road, Belmont, MA 02478, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Da-Peng","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Surface Micro and Nano Materials, Xuchang University, Xuchang 461000, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jun","family":"Dai","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State key Laboratory of Bioenergy Enzyme Technology, National Engineering Research Center for Non-Food Biorefinery, Guangxi Academy of Sciences, Nanning 530007, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yan-Ming","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State key Laboratory of Bioenergy Enzyme Technology, National Engineering Research Center for Non-Food Biorefinery, Guangxi Academy of Sciences, Nanning 530007, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Fang-Li","family":"Du","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State key Laboratory of Bioenergy Enzyme Technology, National Engineering Research Center for Non-Food Biorefinery, Guangxi Academy of Sciences, Nanning 530007, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Si-Yu","family":"Long","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State key Laboratory of Bioenergy Enzyme Technology, National Engineering Research Center for Non-Food Biorefinery, Guangxi Academy of Sciences, Nanning 530007, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Neng-Zhong","family":"Xie","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State key Laboratory of Bioenergy Enzyme Technology, National Engineering Research Center for Non-Food Biorefinery, Guangxi Academy of Sciences, Nanning 530007, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Qing-Yan","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State key Laboratory of Bioenergy Enzyme Technology, National Engineering Research Center for Non-Food Biorefinery, Guangxi Academy of Sciences, Nanning 530007, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ri-Bo","family":"Huang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State key Laboratory of Bioenergy Enzyme Technology, National Engineering Research Center for Non-Food Biorefinery, Guangxi Academy of Sciences, Nanning 530007, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,7,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"507","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00752216","article-title":"Vitreous carbon\u2014A new form of carbon","volume":"2","author":"Cowlard","year":"1967","journal-title":"J. Mater. Sci."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1399","DOI":"10.1021\/cm960639v","article-title":"Fabrication and Characterization of Glassy Carbon MEMS","volume":"9","author":"Schueller","year":"1997","journal-title":"Chem. Mater."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"477","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.19970090604","article-title":"Fabrication of glassy carbon microstructures by pyrolysis of microfabricated polymeric precursors","volume":"9","author":"Schueller","year":"1997","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"156","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-3093(99)00388-9","article-title":"Determination of the sp3\/sp2 ratio of a-C:H by XPS and XAES","volume":"254","author":"Leung","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Non-Cryst. Solids"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3159","DOI":"10.1080\/14786430410001720363","article-title":"Fullerene-related structure of commercial glassy carbons","volume":"84","author":"Harris","year":"2003","journal-title":"Philos. Mag."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"566","DOI":"10.1016\/j.electacta.2016.08.103","article-title":"The continued development of reticulated vitreous carbon as a versatile electrode material: Structure, properties and applications","volume":"215","author":"Walsh","year":"2016","journal-title":"Electrochim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13799","DOI":"10.1007\/s10853-017-1468-9","article-title":"Mesoscale evolution of non-graphitizing pyrolytic carbon in aligned carbon nanotube carbon matrix nanocomposites","volume":"52","author":"Stein","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Mater. Sci."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"411","DOI":"10.1016\/j.carbon.2017.03.001","article-title":"Structure-mechanical property relations of non-graphitizing pyrolytic carbon synthesized at low temperatures","volume":"117","author":"Stein","year":"2017","journal-title":"Carbon"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1249","DOI":"10.1016\/0025-5408(76)90029-5","article-title":"On the structure of glassy carbon","volume":"11","author":"Craievich","year":"1976","journal-title":"Mater. Res. Bull."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1603213","DOI":"10.1126\/sciadv.1603213","article-title":"Compressed glassy carbon: An ultrastrong and elastic interpenetrating graphene network","volume":"3","author":"Hu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Adv."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6212","DOI":"10.1038\/ncomms7212","article-title":"Nanoarchitectured materials composed of fullerene-like spheroids and disordered graphene layers with tunable mechanical properties","volume":"6","author":"Zhao","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"235","DOI":"10.1080\/10408430500406265","article-title":"New perspectives on the structure of graphitic carbons","volume":"30","author":"Harris","year":"2005","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Solid. State Mater. Sci."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"825","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1220522","article-title":"Long-range ordered carbon clusters: A crystalline material with amorphous building blocks","volume":"337","author":"Wang","year":"2012","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"236209","DOI":"10.1088\/0953-8984\/19\/23\/236209","article-title":"Bulk nanostructured carbon phases prepared from C60: Approaching the \u2018ideal\u2019 hardness","volume":"19","author":"Brazhkin","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Phys. Condens. Matter"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1399","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1003476125326","article-title":"Electrochemical studies of kerosene-pyrolysedcarbon films","volume":"28","author":"Sharon","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Appl. Electrochem."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"913","DOI":"10.1126\/science.241.4868.913","article-title":"Low-pressure, metastable growth of diamond and \u201cdiamondlike\u201d phases","volume":"241","author":"Angus","year":"1988","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"319","DOI":"10.1016\/S0008-6223(97)00234-0","article-title":"High-pressure polymerized phases of C60","volume":"36","author":"Blank","year":"1998","journal-title":"Carbon"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1016\/S0924-4247(98)00218-0","article-title":"Fabrication of glassy carbon microstructures by soft lithography","volume":"72","author":"Schueller","year":"1999","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators A"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"837","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.19960081016","article-title":"Fabrication of Three-Dimensional Micro-Structures: Microtransfer Molding","volume":"8","author":"Zhao","year":"1996","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Jenkins, G.M., and Kawamura, K. (1976). Polymeric Carbonss Carbon Fibre, Glass and Char, Cambridge University Press."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"251","DOI":"10.1016\/0038-1101(63)90081-9","article-title":"Vitreous carbon as a crucible material for semiconductors","volume":"6","author":"Lewis","year":"1963","journal-title":"Solid-State Electron."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"035701","DOI":"10.1088\/0957-4484\/27\/3\/035701","article-title":"Mechanics of aligned carbon nanotube polymer matrix nanocomposites simulated via stochastic three-dimensional morphology","volume":"27","author":"Stein","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nanotechnology"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1107\/S1600576716017660","article-title":"Modelling of glass-like carbon structure and its experimental verification by neutron and X-ray Diffraction","volume":"50","author":"Jurkiewicz","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Appl. Cryst."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"813","DOI":"10.1039\/C7BM01192J","article-title":"Simultaneous drug delivery and cellular imaging using graphene oxide","volume":"6","author":"Cheng","year":"2018","journal-title":"Biomater. Sci."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16140","DOI":"10.1021\/acsami.8b03591","article-title":"Robust Covalently Cross-linked Polybenzimidazole\/Graphene Oxide Membranes for High-Flux Organic Solvent Nanofiltration","volume":"10","author":"Fei","year":"2018","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1706442","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.201706442","article-title":"Electroconductive Biohybrid Collagen\/Pristine Graphene Composite Biomaterials with Enhanced Biological Activity","volume":"30","author":"Ryan","year":"2018","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5196","DOI":"10.1039\/C5GC01937K","article-title":"Sustainable wastewater treatment and recycling in membrane manufacturing","volume":"17","author":"Razali","year":"2015","journal-title":"Green Chem."},{"key":"ref_28","first-page":"43","article-title":"Natural polyphenols as sirtuin 6 modulators","volume":"8","author":"Tyni","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1016\/S0254-0584(96)01918-9","article-title":"Glassy carbon from camphor\u2014A natural source","volume":"49","author":"Mukhopadhyay","year":"1997","journal-title":"Mater. Chem. Phys."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"371","DOI":"10.1002\/jbm.820130304","article-title":"The fabrication of artifacts out of glassy carbon and carbon-fiber-reinforced carbon for biomedical applications","volume":"13","author":"Jenkins","year":"1979","journal-title":"J. Biomed. Mater. Res."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"183","DOI":"10.1038\/nature12540","article-title":"The projected timing of climate departure from recent variability","volume":"502","author":"Mora","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18866","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0702737104","article-title":"Contributions to accelerating atmospheric CO2 growth from economic activity, carbon intensity, and efficiency of natural sinks","volume":"104","author":"Canadell","year":"2007","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1016\/S0378-7753(01)00894-1","article-title":"Energy storage\u2014A key technology for global energy sustainability","volume":"100","author":"Dell","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Power Sources"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"596","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nbt.2010.06.010","article-title":"First generation biofuels compete","volume":"27","author":"Martin","year":"2010","journal-title":"New Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4950","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rser.2011.07.058","article-title":"Bioethanol production from pentose sugars: Current status and future prospects","volume":"15","author":"Kuhad","year":"2011","journal-title":"Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"651","DOI":"10.1016\/S0196-8904(03)00177-8","article-title":"Pyrolysis of biomass to produce fuels and chemical feedstocks","volume":"45","author":"Yaman","year":"2004","journal-title":"Energy Convers. Manag."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18154","DOI":"10.1039\/C5TA04721H","article-title":"Facile self-templating large scale preparation of biomass-derived 3D hierarchical porous carbon for advanced supercapacitors","volume":"3","author":"Song","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Mater. Chem. A"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pnsc.2014.05.012","article-title":"Activated carbon derived from rice husk by NaOH activation and its application in supercapacitor","volume":"24","author":"Luong","year":"2014","journal-title":"Prog. Nat. Sci. Mater. Int."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6545","DOI":"10.15376\/biores.12.3.6545-6557","article-title":"Preparation and Characterization of Biobased Graphene from Kraft Lignin","volume":"12","author":"Liu","year":"2017","journal-title":"BioResources"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3063","DOI":"10.1116\/1.3253542","article-title":"Graphitization at interface between amorphous carbon and liquid gallium for fabricating large area graphene sheets","volume":"27","author":"Fujita","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Vacuum Sci. Technol. B Nanotechnol. Microelectron."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1016\/j.indcrop.2004.04.016","article-title":"Review of current and future softwood kraft lignin process chemistry","volume":"20","author":"Arthur","year":"2004","journal-title":"Ind. Crops Prod."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"95","DOI":"10.1016\/j.carbpol.2014.07.052","article-title":"Sugarcane biomass for biorefineries: Comparative composition of carbohydrate and non-carbohydrate components of bagasse and straw","volume":"114","author":"Szczerbowski","year":"2014","journal-title":"Carbohydr. Polym."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"425","DOI":"10.1515\/hfsg.1992.46.5.425","article-title":"Determination of phenolic hydroxyl group content of milled wood lignins (MWL\u2019s) from different botanical origins using selective aminolysis, FTIR, 1H-NMR, and UV spectroscopy","volume":"46","author":"Faix","year":"1992","journal-title":"Holzforschung"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"220","DOI":"10.1016\/j.indcrop.2014.12.021","article-title":"Softwood kraft lignin for value-added applications: Fractionation and structural characterization","volume":"66","author":"Alekhina","year":"2015","journal-title":"Ind. Crops Prod."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pbi.2008.03.005","article-title":"Lignin engineering","volume":"11","author":"Vanholme","year":"2008","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Plant Biol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Luckeneder, P., Gavino, J., Kuchernig, R., Petutschnigg, A., and Tondi, G. (2016). Sustainable Phenolic Fractions as Basis for Furfuryl Alcohol-Based Co-Polymers and Their Use as Wood Adhesives. Polymers, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/polym8110396"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1590\/0104-6632.20150321s00003146","article-title":"Evaluation of composition, characterization and enzymatic hydrolysis of pretreated sugarcane bagasse","volume":"32","author":"Guilherme","year":"2015","journal-title":"Braz. J. Chem. Eng."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"206","DOI":"10.1179\/imr.1997.42.5.206","article-title":"Structure of non-graphitising carbons","volume":"42","author":"Harris","year":"1997","journal-title":"Int. Mater. Rev."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Klapiszewski, L., Jamrozik, A., Strzemiecka, B., Matykiewicz, D., Voelkel, A., and Jesionowski, T. (2017). Activation of Magnesium Lignosulfonate and Kraft Lignin: Influence on the Properties of Phenolic Resin-Based Composites for Potential Applications in Abrasive Materials. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms18061224"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14040","DOI":"10.3390\/en81212412","article-title":"Characteristics of Biochar Obtained by Hydrothermal Carbonization of Cellulose for Renewable Energy","volume":"8","author":"Kim","year":"2015","journal-title":"Energies"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fuel.2014.04.030","article-title":"Hydrothermal carbonization of anaerobically digested sludge for solid fuel production and energy recovery","volume":"130","author":"Kim","year":"2014","journal-title":"Fuel"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.4155\/bfs.10.81","article-title":"Hydrothermal carbonization of biomass residuals: A comparative review of the chemistry, processes and applications of wet and dry pyrolysis","volume":"2","author":"Libra","year":"2011","journal-title":"Biofuels"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2566","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rser.2012.01.074","article-title":"Towards sewage sludge based biofuels via thermochemical conversion\u2014A review","volume":"16","author":"Manara","year":"2011","journal-title":"Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1007\/s00107-004-0530-x","article-title":"Analytical pyrolysis and FTIR spectroscopy of fossil sequoiaden-dron giganteum (Lindl.) wood and MWLs isolated hereof","volume":"63","author":"Ucar","year":"2005","journal-title":"Eur. J. Wood Wood Prod."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104","DOI":"10.1017\/S0885715612000292","article-title":"X-ray diffraction characterization of polymer intercalated graphite oxide","volume":"27","author":"Blanton","year":"2012","journal-title":"Powd. Diff."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"297","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apsusc.2013.05.122","article-title":"Determination of non-uniform graphene thickness on SiC (0 0 0 1) by X-ray diffraction","volume":"282","author":"Ruammaitree","year":"2013","journal-title":"Appl. Surf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1016\/j.physrep.2009.02.003","article-title":"Raman spectroscopy in graphene","volume":"473","author":"Malard","year":"2009","journal-title":"Phys. Rep."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.1007\/s12274-008-8036-1","article-title":"Raman Spectroscopy and Imaging of Graphene","volume":"1","author":"Ni","year":"2008","journal-title":"Nano Res. B"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1433","DOI":"10.1021\/nl8032697","article-title":"Raman spectroscopy of graphenes edges","volume":"9","author":"Casiraghi","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nano Lett."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"H\u00fcfner, S. (1995). Photoelectron Spectroscopy: Principles and Applications, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-662-03150-6"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8659","DOI":"10.1021\/ac202110x","article-title":"Quantitative Analysis of Adsorbed Proteins by X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy","volume":"83","author":"Ray","year":"2011","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_62","unstructured":"Crist, B.V. (2012). Handbook of the Elements and Native Oxides (PDF), XPS International, Inc."},{"key":"ref_63","first-page":"1","article-title":"A review of XPS data-banks","volume":"1","author":"Crist","year":"2007","journal-title":"XPS Rep."}],"container-title":["Nanomaterials"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-4991\/8\/8\/565\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T15:13:57Z","timestamp":1760195637000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-4991\/8\/8\/565"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2018,7,24]]},"references-count":63,"journal-issue":{"issue":"8","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,8]]}},"alternative-id":["nano8080565"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/nano8080565","relation":{},"ISSN":["2079-4991"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2079-4991","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2018,7,24]]}}}