{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,19]],"date-time":"2026-05-19T04:33:50Z","timestamp":1779165230144,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":80,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,20]],"date-time":"2025-01-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1737331200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100004319","name":"Pfizer Inc.","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["CRSII3_127454"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CRSII3_127454"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100004319","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100004319","name":"Pfizer Inc.","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["CRS205321_124720"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CRS205321_124720"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100004319","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100004319","name":"Pfizer Inc.","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["31003A_112670"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["31003A_112670"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100004319","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100004319","name":"Pfizer Inc.","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["310030_141067"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["310030_141067"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100004319","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"name":"Swiss National Science Foundatio","award":["CRSII3_127454"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CRSII3_127454"]}]},{"name":"Swiss National Science Foundatio","award":["CRS205321_124720"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CRS205321_124720"]}]},{"name":"Swiss National Science Foundatio","award":["31003A_112670"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["31003A_112670"]}]},{"name":"Swiss National Science Foundatio","award":["310030_141067"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["310030_141067"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.mdpi.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["ncRNA"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: Despite tremendous advances in antiretroviral therapy (ART) against HIV-1 infections, no cure or vaccination is available. Therefore, discovering novel therapeutic strategies remains an urgent need. In that sense, miRNAs and miRNA therapeutics have moved intensively into the focus of recent HIV-1-related investigations. A strong reciprocal interdependence has been demonstrated between HIV-1 infection and changes of the intrinsic cellular miRNA milieu. This interrelationship may direct potential alterations of the host cells\u2019 environment beneficial for the virus or its suppression of replication. Whether this tightly balanced and controlled battle can be exploited therapeutically remains to be further addressed. In this context, the fluoroquinolone antibiotic Enoxacin has been demonstrated as a potent modulator of miRNA processing. Here, we test the hypothesis that this applies also to selected HIV-1-related miRNAs. Methods: We studied the effect of Enoxacin on HIV-1 replication coupled with miRNA qRT-PCR analysis of HIV-1-related miRNAs in CEM-SS and MT-4 T-cells. The effects of miRNA mimic transfections combined with Enoxacin treatment on HIV-1 replication were assessed. Finally, we employed an in vitro DICER1 cleavage assay to study the effects of Enoxacin on a pro-HIV-1 miRNA hsa-miR-132 processing. Results: We established that Enoxacin, but not the structurally similar compound nalidixic acid, exhibits strong anti-HIV-1 effects in the T-cell line CEM-SS, but not MT-4. We provide experimental data that this effect of Enoxacin is partly attributed to the specific downregulation of mature hsa-miR-132-3p, but not other tested pro- or anti-HIV-1 miRNAs, which is likely due to affecting DICER1 processing. Conclusions: Our findings show an anti-retroviral activity of Enoxacin at least in part by downregulation of hsa-miR-132-3p, which may be relevant for future antiviral therapeutic applications by modulation of the RNA interference pathway.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ncrna11010008","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,21]],"date-time":"2025-01-21T06:53:32Z","timestamp":1737442412000},"page":"8","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Anti-HIV-1 Effect of the Fluoroquinolone Enoxacin and Modulation of Pro-Viral hsa-miR-132 Processing in CEM-SS Cells"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"given":"Verena","family":"Schl\u00f6sser","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, ETH Zurich, 8093 Zurich, Switzerland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Helen","family":"Lightfoot","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, ETH Zurich, 8093 Zurich, Switzerland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Christine","family":"Leemann","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Infectious Diseases and Hospital Epidemiology, University Hospital Zurich, University of Zurich, 8091 Zurich, Switzerland"},{"name":"Institute of Medical Virology, University of Zurich, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Seyedeh","family":"Banijamali","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Max Planck Institute of Molecular Physiology, Chemical Genomics Centre, 44227 Dortmund, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Aathma","family":"Bejoy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Max Planck Institute of Molecular Physiology, Chemical Genomics Centre, 44227 Dortmund, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Shashank","family":"Tiwari","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Max Planck Institute of Molecular Physiology, Chemical Genomics Centre, 44227 Dortmund, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jeffrey","family":"Schlo\u00dfhauer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Max Planck Institute of Molecular Physiology, Chemical Genomics Centre, 44227 Dortmund, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Valentina","family":"Vongrad","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Infectious Diseases and Hospital Epidemiology, University Hospital Zurich, University of Zurich, 8091 Zurich, Switzerland"},{"name":"Institute of Medical Virology, University of Zurich, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Andreas","family":"Brunschweiger","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, ETH Zurich, 8093 Zurich, Switzerland"},{"name":"Department of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, University W\u00fcrzburg, 97074 W\u00fcrzburg, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jonathan","family":"Hall","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, ETH Zurich, 8093 Zurich, Switzerland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4862-1503","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Karin","family":"Metzner","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Infectious Diseases and Hospital Epidemiology, University Hospital Zurich, University of Zurich, 8091 Zurich, Switzerland"},{"name":"Institute of Medical Virology, University of Zurich, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jochen","family":"Imig","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, ETH Zurich, 8093 Zurich, Switzerland"},{"name":"Max Planck Institute of Molecular Physiology, Chemical Genomics Centre, 44227 Dortmund, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"UNAIDS (2024, November 11). UN Joint Programme on HIV\/AIDS (UNAIDS), Global AIDS Update\u20142016. June 2016. Available online: https:\/\/www.refworld.org\/reference\/annualreport\/unaids\/2016\/en\/110274."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"421","DOI":"10.1038\/nature07757","article-title":"Viral and cellular messenger RNA targets of viral microRNAs","volume":"457","author":"Cullen","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"861","DOI":"10.1038\/nrg3074","article-title":"Non-coding RNAs in human disease","volume":"12","author":"Esteller","year":"2011","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Genet."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1386","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2016.08.055","article-title":"In Vivo Cellular Reprogramming: The Next Generation","volume":"166","author":"Srivastava","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2018.03.006","article-title":"Metazoan MicroRNAs","volume":"173","author":"Bartel","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"515","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2012.04.005","article-title":"Roles for microRNAs in conferring robustness to biological processes","volume":"149","author":"Ebert","year":"2012","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"557","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1108784","article-title":"A cellular microRNA mediates antiviral defense in human cells","volume":"308","author":"Lecellier","year":"2005","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1577","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1113329","article-title":"Modulation of hepatitis C virus RNA abundance by a liver-specific MicroRNA","volume":"309","author":"Jopling","year":"2005","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"369","DOI":"10.1101\/sqb.2006.71.022","article-title":"Positive and negative modulation of viral and cellular mRNAs by liver-specific microRNA miR-122","volume":"71","author":"Jopling","year":"2006","journal-title":"Cold Spring Harb. Symp. Quant. Biol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rashid, F., Zaongo, S.D., Song, F., and Chen, Y. (2022). The diverse roles of miRNAs in HIV pathogenesis: Current understanding and future perspectives. Front. Immunol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2022.1091543"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"40884","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.R112.415448","article-title":"MicroRNAs and HIV-1: Complex interactions","volume":"287","author":"Klase","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"735","DOI":"10.1016\/S0960-9822(02)00809-6","article-title":"Identification of tissue-specific microRNAs from mouse","volume":"12","author":"Rauhut","year":"2002","journal-title":"Curr. Biol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1685","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1209026","article-title":"Treatment of HCV infection by targeting microRNA","volume":"368","author":"Janssen","year":"2013","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.2147\/HIV.S383347","article-title":"An Evaluation on the Role of Non-Coding RNA in HIV Transcription and Latency: A Review","volume":"15","author":"Ramirez","year":"2023","journal-title":"HIV\/AIDS-Res. Palliat. Care"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"696","DOI":"10.1016\/j.molcel.2009.06.003","article-title":"Cellular microRNA and P bodies modulate host-HIV-1 interactions","volume":"34","author":"Nathans","year":"2009","journal-title":"Mol. Cell"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2181","DOI":"10.1093\/nar\/gkr961","article-title":"Interplay between HIV-1 infection and host microRNAs","volume":"40","author":"Sun","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nucleic Acids Res."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1186\/1742-4690-5-117","article-title":"Human cellular microRNA hsa-miR-29a interferes with viral nef protein expression and HIV-1 replication","volume":"5","author":"Ahluwalia","year":"2008","journal-title":"Retrovirology"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128","DOI":"10.2174\/1570162X21666230524151328","article-title":"MIR-29A-3P, MIR-29C-3P, MIR-146B-5P AND MIR-150-5P, Their Target Genes and lncrnas in HIV Infection: A Bioinformatic Study","volume":"21","author":"Tumolo","year":"2023","journal-title":"Curr. HIV Res."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Morando, N., Rosenzvit, M.C., Pando, M.A., and Allmer, J. (2024). The Role of MicroRNAs in HIV Infection. Genes, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/genes15050574"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Whisnant, A.W., Bogerd, H.P., Flores, O., Ho, P., Powers, J.G., Sharova, N., Stevenson, M., Chen, C.-H., and Cullen, B.R. (2013). In-depth analysis of the interaction of HIV-1 with cellular microRNA biogenesis and effector mechanisms. MBio, 4.","DOI":"10.1128\/mBio.00193-13"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1241","DOI":"10.1038\/nm1639","article-title":"Cellular microRNAs contribute to HIV-1 latency in resting primary CD4+ T lymphocytes","volume":"13","author":"Huang","year":"2007","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11684","DOI":"10.1093\/nar\/gks912","article-title":"The extent of sequence complementarity correlates with the potency of cellular miRNA-mediated restriction of HIV-1","volume":"40","author":"Houzet","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nucleic Acids Res."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1579","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1136319","article-title":"Suppression of microRNA-silencing pathway by HIV-1 during virus replication","volume":"315","author":"Triboulet","year":"2007","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vongrad, V., Imig, J., Mohammadi, P., Kishore, S., Jaskiewicz, L., Hall, J., G\u00fcnthard, H.F., Beerenwinkel, N., and Metzner, K.J. (2015). HIV-1 RNAs are Not Part of the Argonaute 2 Associated RNA Interference Pathway in Macrophages. PLoS ONE, 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0132127"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virol.2012.12.016","article-title":"miR-132 enhances HIV-1 replication","volume":"438","author":"Chiang","year":"2013","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1186\/s12977-024-00637-y","article-title":"MicroRNAs and long non-coding RNAs during transcriptional regulation and latency of HIV and HTLV","volume":"21","author":"Scarborough","year":"2024","journal-title":"Retrovirology"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"346","DOI":"10.15252\/embj.201694335","article-title":"miRNA profiling of human naive CD4 T cells links miR-34c-5p to cell activation and HIV replication","volume":"36","author":"Amaral","year":"2017","journal-title":"EMBO J."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"293","DOI":"10.1042\/BJ20150700","article-title":"The miRNA miR-34a enhances HIV-1 replication by targeting PNUTS\/PPP1R10, which negatively regulates HIV-1 transcriptional complex formation","volume":"470","author":"Kapoor","year":"2015","journal-title":"Biochem. J."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4203","DOI":"10.1016\/j.febslet.2012.10.023","article-title":"MiR-34a is involved in Tat-induced HIV-1 long terminal repeat (LTR) transactivation through the SIRT1\/NFkappaB pathway","volume":"586","author":"Zhang","year":"2012","journal-title":"FEBS Lett."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1017","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbamcr.2012.02.014","article-title":"MiR-217 is involved in Tat-induced HIV-1 long terminal repeat (LTR) transactivation by down-regulation of SIRT1","volume":"1823","author":"Zhang","year":"2012","journal-title":"Biochim. Biophys. Acta Mol. Cell Res."},{"key":"ref_31","first-page":"1607","article-title":"MicroRNA-mediated regulation of p21 and TASK1 cellular restriction factors enhances HIV-1 infection","volume":"128","author":"Farberov","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Cell. Sci."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"48","DOI":"10.1159\/000007164","article-title":"A new fluoroquinolone derivative exhibits inhibitory activity against human immunodeficiency virus type 1 replication","volume":"45","author":"Kashiwase","year":"1999","journal-title":"Chemotherapy"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.1247\/csf.15.295","article-title":"Fluoroquinolones protect the human lymphocyte CEM cell line from HIV-1-mediated cytotoxicity","volume":"15","author":"Iino","year":"1990","journal-title":"Cell Struct. Funct."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"933","DOI":"10.1038\/nbt.1481","article-title":"A small molecule enhances RNA interference and promotes microRNA processing","volume":"26","author":"Shan","year":"2008","journal-title":"Nat. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"548","DOI":"10.4161\/epi.24519","article-title":"Enoxacin inhibits growth of prostate cancer cells and effectively restores microRNA processing","volume":"8","author":"Sousa","year":"2013","journal-title":"Epigenetics"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1186\/1742-4690-10-97","article-title":"Arginine rich short linear motif of HIV-1 regulatory proteins inhibits dicer dependent RNA interference","volume":"10","author":"Ponia","year":"2013","journal-title":"Retrovirology"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"895","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmet.2012.04.021","article-title":"Iron homeostasis regulates the activity of the microRNA pathway through poly(C)-binding protein 2","volume":"15","author":"Li","year":"2012","journal-title":"Cell Metab."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Smalheiser, N.R., Zhang, H., and Dwivedi, Y. (2014). Enoxacin Elevates MicroRNA Levels in Rat Frontal Cortex and Prevents Learned Helplessness. Front. Psychiatry, 5.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2014.00006"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5486","DOI":"10.1038\/s41388-019-0804-8","article-title":"Impaired microRNA processing by DICER1 downregulation endows thyroid cancer with increased aggressiveness","volume":"38","author":"Santisteban","year":"2019","journal-title":"Oncogene"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"84","DOI":"10.1016\/j.redox.2018.06.006","article-title":"Enoxacin extends lifespan of C. elegans by inhibiting miR-34-5p and promoting mitohormesis","volume":"18","author":"Pinto","year":"2018","journal-title":"Redox Biol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7976","DOI":"10.1021\/ja910275u","article-title":"Small molecule modifiers of microRNA miR-122 function for the treatment of hepatitis C virus infection and hepatocellular carcinoma","volume":"132","author":"Young","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Am. Chem. Soc."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Valianatos, G., Valcikova, B., Growkova, K., Verlande, A., Mlcochova, J., Radova, L., Stetkova, M., Vyhnakova, M., Slaby, O., and Uldrijan, S. (2017). A small molecule drug promoting miRNA processing induces alternative splicing of MdmX transcript and rescues p53 activity in human cancer cells overexpressing MdmX protein. PLoS ONE, 12.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0185801"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1148","DOI":"10.1038\/nsmb.1673","article-title":"Structural insights into RNA processing by the human RISC-loading complex","volume":"16","author":"Wang","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nat. Struct. Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2012","DOI":"10.1261\/rna.035501.112","article-title":"TRBP alters human precursor microRNA processing in vitro","volume":"18","author":"Lee","year":"2012","journal-title":"RNA"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4394","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1014720108","article-title":"Small molecule enoxacin is a cancer-specific growth inhibitor that acts by enhancing TAR RNA-binding protein 2-mediated microRNA processing","volume":"108","author":"Melo","year":"2011","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1016\/S0166-3542(97)00014-4","article-title":"Evaluation of anti-AIDS drugs in conventional mice implanted with a permeable membrane device containing human T cells infected with HIV","volume":"35","author":"Quenelle","year":"1997","journal-title":"Antivir. Res."},{"key":"ref_47","first-page":"271","article-title":"Establishment of an MT4 cell line persistently producing infective HIV-1 particles","volume":"39","author":"Gyuris","year":"1992","journal-title":"Acta Microbiol. Hung."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1401","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2007.04.040","article-title":"A mammalian microRNA expression atlas based on small RNA library sequencing","volume":"129","author":"Landgraf","year":"2007","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"731","DOI":"10.1093\/hmg\/ddq519","article-title":"miRNA-132 orchestrates chromatin remodeling and translational control of the circadian clock","volume":"20","author":"Antoun","year":"2011","journal-title":"Hum. Mol. Genet."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ymeth.2007.04.005","article-title":"In vitro analysis of microRNA processing using recombinant Dicer and cytoplasmic extracts of HeLa cells","volume":"43","author":"Leuschner","year":"2007","journal-title":"Methods"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ab.2019.05.008","article-title":"Labeling microRNA precursors for Dicer assays","volume":"579","author":"Hall","year":"2019","journal-title":"Anal. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1643","DOI":"10.1038\/nprot.2015.103","article-title":"Selective 2\u2032-hydroxyl acylation analyzed by primer extension and mutational profiling (SHAPE-MaP) for direct, versatile and accurate RNA structure analysis","volume":"10","author":"Smola","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nat. Protoc."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Reuter, J.S., and Mathews, D.H. (2010). RNAstructure: Software for RNA secondary structure prediction and analysis. BMC Bioinform., 11.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2105-11-129"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1777","DOI":"10.1101\/gr.251421.119","article-title":"Global analyses of the dynamics of mammalian microRNA metabolism","volume":"29","author":"Kingston","year":"2019","journal-title":"Genome Res."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"554","DOI":"10.1101\/gr.198788.115","article-title":"Degradation dynamics of microRNAs revealed by a novel pulse-chase approach","volume":"26","author":"Marzi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Genome Res."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"471","DOI":"10.1038\/nrmicro3503","article-title":"HIV-1 capsid: The multifaceted key player in HIV-1 infection","volume":"13","author":"Campbell","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"877","DOI":"10.1038\/nrmicro3132","article-title":"Past, present and future: 30 years of HIV research","volume":"11","author":"Ross","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"752","DOI":"10.1016\/j.celrep.2014.09.031","article-title":"Comprehensive identification of host modulators of HIV-1 replication using multiple orthologous RNAi reagents","volume":"9","author":"Zhu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Cell Rep."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"484","DOI":"10.1038\/nrmicro3490","article-title":"HIV-1 assembly, release and maturation","volume":"13","author":"Freed","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.1007\/s11904-017-0357-9","article-title":"Mechanisms of HIV-1 Control","volume":"14","author":"Soliman","year":"2017","journal-title":"Curr. HIV\/AIDS Rep."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1038\/nchembio.1713","article-title":"miR-CLIP capture of a miRNA targetome uncovers a lincRNA H19-miR-106a interaction","volume":"11","author":"Imig","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nat. Chem. Biol."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"247","DOI":"10.1186\/s12974-016-0716-2","article-title":"HIV-1 Tat-shortened neurite outgrowth through regulation of microRNA-132 and its target gene expression","volume":"13","author":"Rahimian","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Neuroinflammation"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"272","DOI":"10.1016\/0042-6822(85)90010-8","article-title":"Infection of human T-lymphotropic virus type-I (HTLV-I)-bearing MT-4 cells with HTLV-III (AIDS virus): Chronological studies of early events","volume":"146","author":"Harada","year":"1985","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4313","DOI":"10.1016\/j.febslet.2010.09.031","article-title":"Interaction of human T-cell lymphotropic virus type I Rex protein with Dicer suppresses RNAi silencing","volume":"584","author":"Abe","year":"2010","journal-title":"FEBS Lett."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"397","DOI":"10.1016\/j.molcel.2014.11.030","article-title":"Dicer-TRBP complex formation ensures accurate mammalian microRNA biogenesis","volume":"57","author":"Wilson","year":"2015","journal-title":"Mol. Cell"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12275","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.jmedchem.0c00510","article-title":"Modulating microRNA Processing: Enoxacin, the Progenitor of a New Class of Drugs","volume":"63","author":"Felicetti","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Med. Chem."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2121","DOI":"10.1093\/nar\/gkx1319","article-title":"Riboswitching with ciprofloxacin-development and characterization of a novel RNA regulator","volume":"46","author":"Groher","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nucleic Acids Res."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Felicetti, T., Di Iacovo, N., Della Fazia, M.A., Piobbico, D., Pieroni, S., Pacetti, M., Yu, J., Sun, Y., Massari, S., and Barreca, M.L. (2025). New anti-ovarian cancer quinolone derivatives acting by modulating microRNA processing machinery. RSC Med. Chem.","DOI":"10.1039\/D4MD00649F"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ja\u0142brzykowska, K., Chrzanowska, A., Roszkowski, P., and Struga, M. (2022). The New Face of a Well-Known Antibiotic: A Review of the Anticancer Activity of Enoxacin and Its Derivatives. Cancers, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/cancers14133056"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3799","DOI":"10.1021\/jm9903390","article-title":"6-Aminoquinolones as new potential anti-HIV agents","volume":"43","author":"Cecchetti","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Med. Chem."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"889","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.47.3.889-896.2003","article-title":"New anti-human immunodeficiency virus type 1 6-aminoquinolones: Mechanism of action","volume":"47","author":"Parolin","year":"2003","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"641","DOI":"10.1021\/jm901211d","article-title":"A 1,8-naphthyridone derivative targets the HIV-1 Tat-mediated transcription and potently inhibits the HIV-1 replication","volume":"53","author":"Massari","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Med. Chem."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10074","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.74.21.10074-10080.2000","article-title":"Malim, Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 spinoculation enhances infection through virus binding","volume":"74","author":"Swiggard","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.1089\/aid.1987.3.283","article-title":"Simple, rapid, quantitative, syncytium-forming microassay for the detection of human immunodeficiency virus neutralizing antibody","volume":"3","author":"Nara","year":"1987","journal-title":"AIDS Res. Hum. Retroviruses"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1139","DOI":"10.1126\/science.2251501","article-title":"Dissociation of gp120 from HIV-1 virions induced by soluble CD4","volume":"250","author":"Moore","year":"1990","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1101","DOI":"10.1038\/nprot.2008.73","article-title":"Analyzing real-time PCR data by the comparative C(T) method","volume":"3","author":"Schmittgen","year":"2008","journal-title":"Nat. Protoc."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1405","DOI":"10.1093\/bioinformatics\/btw814","article-title":"Primerize-2D: Automated primer design for RNA multidimensional chemical mapping","volume":"33","author":"Tian","year":"2017","journal-title":"Bioinformatics"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4144","DOI":"10.1021\/ja0704028","article-title":"A fast-acting reagent for accurate analysis of RNA secondary and tertiary structure by SHAPE chemistry","volume":"129","author":"Mortimer","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Am. Chem. Soc."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1261\/rna.061945.117","article-title":"Accurate detection of chemical modifications in RNA by mutational profiling (MaP) with ShapeMapper 2","volume":"24","author":"Busan","year":"2018","journal-title":"RNA"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7167","DOI":"10.1039\/D0CS00560F","article-title":"Small molecule recognition of disease-relevant RNA structures","volume":"49","author":"Meyer","year":"2020","journal-title":"Chem. Soc. Rev."}],"updated-by":[{"DOI":"10.3390\/ncrna11030040","type":"correction","label":"Correction","source":"publisher","updated":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,20]],"date-time":"2025-01-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1737331200000}}],"container-title":["Non-Coding RNA"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2311-553X\/11\/1\/8\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,3]],"date-time":"2025-08-03T15:01:31Z","timestamp":1754233291000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2311-553X\/11\/1\/8"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,20]]},"references-count":80,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,2]]}},"alternative-id":["ncrna11010008"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ncrna11010008","relation":{"correction":[{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.3390\/ncrna11030040","asserted-by":"object"}]},"ISSN":["2311-553X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2311-553X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,20]]}}}