{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,25]],"date-time":"2026-05-25T08:03:50Z","timestamp":1779696230787,"version":"3.53.1"},"reference-count":79,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,12]],"date-time":"2026-05-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1778544000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Neurology International"],"abstract":"<jats:p>To this day, the etiology of multiple sclerosis has yet to be fully comprehended by the scientific community. However, the knowledge on mechanisms leading to the development of this neurodegenerative autoimmune disorder increases daily, along with the development of new disease-modifying treatments. A correlation between Epstein\u2013Barr Virus infection and the disease incidence has recently shed light on possible innovative antiviral therapies. Here, we review the literature on Human Endogenous Retroviral sequences as emerging actors for the impairment of remyelination as a major challenge in disease progression. Our primary focus is the HERV-W envelope protein, which has been found at elevated levels in individuals affected by this condition and is suggested here as a potential therapeutic target. We then continue analyzing the clinical cases where antiretroviral drugs have been tested to treat multiple sclerosis patients and, from successes and failures, we finally narrow down our therapeutic hypothesis to the administration of Nucleoside-analog Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors to target the HERV-W envelope protein, possibly leading to remyelination and significantly improving the condition of those affected by the disease. The main purpose of this review is to present a rationale for the therapeutic potential of this drug class and offer a new perspective for therapeutic options against multiple sclerosis.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/neurolint18050089","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,25]],"date-time":"2026-05-25T06:42:18Z","timestamp":1779691338000},"page":"89","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Nucleoside-Analog Reverse-Transcriptase Inhibitors (NRTIs) Against Multiple Sclerosis: Comprehensive Review on a Possible Novel Therapeutic Approach"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"given":"Alfonso","family":"Martinisi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Economics, Universit\u00e0 della Svizzera Italiana (USI), 6900 Lugano, Switzerland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1896-6324","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Paolo","family":"Paganetti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Tivenix SA, 6900 Lugano, Switzerland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1955","DOI":"10.1080\/14656566.2020.1799977","article-title":"Ponesimod for the treatment of relapsing multiple sclerosis","volume":"21","author":"Baldin","year":"2020","journal-title":"Expert Opin. Pharmacother."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"183","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(23)01473-3","article-title":"Multiple sclerosis","volume":"403","author":"Jakimovski","year":"2024","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_3","first-page":"s00451809400","article-title":"The impact of multiple sclerosis on wellbeing, productivity, and societal relations","volume":"83","author":"Vergani","year":"2025","journal-title":"Arq. Neuro-Psiquiatr."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1111\/ene.13819","article-title":"Multiple sclerosis\u2014A review","volume":"26","author":"Dobson","year":"2019","journal-title":"Eur. J. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1002\/ana.25119","article-title":"B-cell Therapy for Multiple Sclerosis: Entering an era","volume":"83","author":"Greenfield","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ann. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1001\/jamaneurol.2015.3977","article-title":"Effect of multiple sclerosis disease-modifying therapies on B cells and humoral immunity","volume":"73","author":"Longbrake","year":"2016","journal-title":"JAMA Neurol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1502","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(08)61620-7","article-title":"Multiple sclerosis","volume":"372","author":"Compston","year":"2008","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"589","DOI":"10.1016\/S0074-7742(07)79026-8","article-title":"Remyelination in multiple sclerosis","volume":"79","author":"Chari","year":"2007","journal-title":"Int. Rev. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"539","DOI":"10.3934\/Neuroscience.2025027","article-title":"Remyelination as a therapeutic target in the treatment of multiple sclerosis","volume":"12","author":"Garcha","year":"2025","journal-title":"AIMS Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.3988\/jcn.2015.11.1.9","article-title":"Oral disease-modifying therapies for multiple sclerosis","volume":"11","author":"Kim","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Clin. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rommer, P.S., Milo, R., Han, M.H., Satyanarayan, S., Sellner, J., Hauer, L., and Stuve, O. (2019). Immunological aspects of approved MS therapeutics. Front. Immunol., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2019.01564"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-4422(24)00027-9","article-title":"Clinical trials for progressive multiple sclerosis","volume":"23","author":"Chataway","year":"2024","journal-title":"Lancet Neurol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1080\/1744666X.2018.1426462","article-title":"Interferon \u03b2-1a and \u03b2-1b for patients with multiple sclerosis","volume":"14","author":"Zettl","year":"2018","journal-title":"Expert Rev. Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1038\/s41582-020-00446-9","article-title":"Facing the urgency of therapies for progressive MS","volume":"17","author":"Dangond","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_15","first-page":"S17","article-title":"Interferon-\u03b2 mechanisms of action in multiple sclerosis","volume":"74","author":"Marks","year":"2010","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ebiom.2019.09.059","article-title":"Interferon-\u03b2 corrects massive gene dysregulation in multiple sclerosis","volume":"49","author":"Feng","year":"2019","journal-title":"eBioMedicine"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"de S\u00e8ze, J., Maillart, E., Gueguen, A., Laplaud, D.A., Michel, L., Thouvenot, E., and Liblau, R. (2023). Anti-CD20 therapies in multiple sclerosis. Front. Immunol., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2023.1004795"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"385","DOI":"10.1007\/s40263-021-00798-w","article-title":"Sphingosine 1-Phosphate Receptor Modulators for Multiple Sclerosis","volume":"35","author":"Roy","year":"2021","journal-title":"CNS Drugs"},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"Biogen (2026, April 25). Statement: Biogen Receives Favorable Decision from European Patent Office on Patent Related to TECFIDERA (Dimethyl Fumarate). Available online: https:\/\/investors.biogen.com\/news-releases\/news-release-details\/statement-biogen-receives-favorable-decision-european-patent."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4777","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1603907113","article-title":"Dimethyl fumarate treatment induces adaptive and innate immune modulation independent of Nrf2","volume":"113","author":"Pekarek","year":"2016","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"678","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/awq386","article-title":"Fumaric acid esters exert neuroprotective effects via Nrf2","volume":"134","author":"Linker","year":"2011","journal-title":"Brain"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jneuroim.2016.08.006","article-title":"Dimethyl fumarate alters microglia phenotype and protects neurons against proinflammatory toxic microenvironments","volume":"299","author":"Peng","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Neuroimmunol."},{"key":"ref_23","first-page":"e70397","article-title":"Recent advances in remyelination","volume":"32","author":"Wens","year":"2025","journal-title":"Eur. J. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"296","DOI":"10.1126\/science.abj8222","article-title":"Longitudinal analysis reveals high prevalence of EBV in MS","volume":"375","author":"Bjornevik","year":"2022","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3652","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2022.08.026","article-title":"Epstein-Barr virus: Biology and clinical disease","volume":"185","author":"Damania","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1454","DOI":"10.1002\/cti2.1454","article-title":"The interaction between Epstein\u2013Barr virus and multiple sclerosis genetic risk loci","volume":"12","author":"Afrasiabi","year":"2023","journal-title":"Clin. Transl. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2348","DOI":"10.1002\/eji.202149179","article-title":"HLA-DRB1*15:01 is a co-receptor for Epstein\u2013Barr virus","volume":"51","author":"Menegatti","year":"2021","journal-title":"Eur. J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105210","DOI":"10.1016\/j.msard.2023.105210","article-title":"Predisposed HLA-DRB1 alleles and EBV infection increase MS susceptibility","volume":"80","author":"Kaur","year":"2023","journal-title":"Mult. Scler. Relat. Disord."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2418783122","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2418783122","article-title":"A disease-specific convergence of host and Epstein\u2013Barr virus genetics in multiple sclerosis","volume":"122","author":"Mechelli","year":"2025","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"van de Waterweg Berends, A., Broux, B., Machiels, B., Gillet, L., and Hellings, N. (2024). The EBV\u2013MS connection: The enigma remains. Front. Immunol., 15.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2024.1466339"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5675","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2023.11.023","article-title":"EBV and MS: The evidence is growing stronger","volume":"186","author":"Farrell","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e110","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1468-1331.2011.03430.x","article-title":"Could antiretroviral drugs be effective in multiple sclerosis?","volume":"18","author":"Maruszak","year":"2011","journal-title":"Eur. J. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_33","first-page":"1000141","article-title":"Human immunodeficiency virus and multiple sclerosis risk","volume":"2","author":"Khan","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Mult. Scler."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1136\/jnnp-2014-307932","article-title":"HIV and lower risk of multiple sclerosis: Beginning to unravel a mystery using a record-linked database study","volume":"86","author":"Gold","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"379","DOI":"10.1016\/j.molmed.2018.02.007","article-title":"Human endogenous retroviruses in neurological diseases","volume":"24","author":"Nath","year":"2018","journal-title":"Trends Mol. Med."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"249","DOI":"10.1152\/physiolgenomics.00171.2022","article-title":"Human endogenous retroviruses: Our genomic fossils and companions","volume":"55","author":"Stein","year":"2023","journal-title":"Physiol. Genom."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, Y.N., Ye, Y., Zhou, D., Guo, Z.W., Xiong, Z., Gong, X.X., and Chen, H. (2022). The role of syncytin in placental angiogenesis and fetal growth. Front. Cell Dev. Biol., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcell.2022.852561"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151746","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbrc.2025.151746","article-title":"Functions of the fusogenic and non-fusogenic activities of Syncytin-1","volume":"761","author":"Chen","year":"2025","journal-title":"Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7901","DOI":"10.1007\/s11033-023-08658-0","article-title":"The important biological roles of Syncytin-1 and Syncytin-2 in human placenta development","volume":"50","author":"Heydarifard","year":"2023","journal-title":"Mol. Biol. Rep."},{"key":"ref_40","first-page":"185","article-title":"Endogenous retrovirus-encoded Syncytin-2 contributes to exosome-mediated immunosuppression of T cells","volume":"102","author":"Lokossou","year":"2020","journal-title":"Biol. Reprod."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.1177\/1352458517737370","article-title":"The aliens inside us: HERV-W endogenous retroviruses and multiple sclerosis","volume":"24","author":"Dolei","year":"2018","journal-title":"Mult. Scler. J."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"de la Hera, B., Varade, J., Garc\u00eda-Montojo, M., Lamas, J.R., de la Encarnaci\u00f3n, A., Arroyo, R., and Urcelay, E. (2013). Role of the human endogenous retrovirus HERV-K18 in autoimmune disease susceptibility. PLoS ONE, 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0062090"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dolei, A., Ibba, G., Piu, C., and Serra, C. (2019). Expression of HERV genes as possible biomarker and target in neurodegenerative diseases. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms20153706"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"307ra153","DOI":"10.1126\/scitranslmed.aac8201","article-title":"Human endogenous retrovirus-K contributes to motor neuron disease","volume":"7","author":"Li","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sci. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Curty, G., Marston, J.L., de Mulder Rougvie, M., Leal, F.E., Nixon, D.F., and Soares, M.A. (2020). Human endogenous retrovirus K in cancer: A potential biomarker and immunotherapeutic target. Viruses, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/v12070726"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Morandi, E., Tanasescu, R., Tarlinton, R.E., Constantinescu, C.S., Zhang, W., Tench, C., and Gran, B. (2017). The association between human endogenous retroviruses and multiple sclerosis: A systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS ONE, 12.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0172415"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1186\/1742-4690-11-2","article-title":"HERV-W polymorphism in chromosome X is associated with multiple sclerosis risk and with differential expression of MSRV","volume":"11","author":"Camacho","year":"2014","journal-title":"Retrovirology"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1829","DOI":"10.1177\/1352458520987269","article-title":"Unbiased examination of genome-wide human endogenous retrovirus transcripts in MS brain lesions","volume":"27","author":"Elkjaer","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mult. Scler. J."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15216","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1901283116","article-title":"pHERV-W envelope protein fuels microglial cell-dependent damage of myelinated axons in multiple sclerosis","volume":"116","author":"Kremer","year":"2019","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"360","DOI":"10.2174\/157015911795596568","article-title":"Human endogenous retroviruses in multiple sclerosis: Potential for novel neuro-pharmacological research","volume":"9","author":"Ryan","year":"2011","journal-title":"Curr. Neuropharmacol."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jneuroim.2015.12.006","article-title":"MSRV envelope protein is a potent, endogenous and pathogenic agonist of human toll-like receptor 4","volume":"291","author":"Madeira","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Neuroimmunol."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1016\/j.msard.2016.04.006","article-title":"Human endogenous retrovirus W in brain lesions: Rationale for targeted therapy in multiple sclerosis","volume":"8","author":"Nijland","year":"2016","journal-title":"Mult. Scler. Relat. Disord."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"160","DOI":"10.1002\/glia.23535","article-title":"Rescuing the negative impact of human endogenous retrovirus envelope protein on oligodendroglial differentiation and myelination","volume":"67","author":"Gruchot","year":"2019","journal-title":"Glia"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2308187120","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2308187120","article-title":"Transgenic expression of the HERV-W envelope protein leads to polarized glial cell populations and a neurodegenerative environment","volume":"120","author":"Gruchot","year":"2023","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"P\u00e9rez-P\u00e9rez, S., Dom\u00ednguez-Mozo, M.I., Garc\u00eda-Mart\u00ednez, M.\u00c1., Ballester-Gonz\u00e1lez, R., Nieto-Ga\u00f1\u00e1n, I., Arroyo, R., and Alvarez-Lafuente, R. (2022). Epstein-Barr virus load correlates with multiple sclerosis-associated retrovirus envelope expression. Biomedicines, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/biomedicines10020387"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Evans, E.F., Saraph, A., and Tokuyama, M. (2024). Transactivation of human endogenous retroviruses by viruses. Viruses, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/v16111649"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"531","DOI":"10.1007\/s13365-014-0260-8","article-title":"CNS demyelinating disorder with mixed features of neuromyelitis optica and multiple sclerosis in HIV-1 infection","volume":"20","author":"Delgado","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Neurovirol."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"640","DOI":"10.1007\/s13365-014-0288-9","article-title":"Multiple sclerosis remission following antiretroviral therapy in an HIV-infected man","volume":"20","author":"Chalkley","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Neurovirol."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1016\/j.msard.2018.06.002","article-title":"A phase II baseline versus treatment study to determine the efficacy of raltegravir in preventing progression of relapsing remitting multiple sclerosis: The INSPIRE study","volume":"24","author":"Gold","year":"2018","journal-title":"Mult. Scler. Relat. Disord."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"429","DOI":"10.1177\/13524585211024997","article-title":"Efficacy and safety of temelimab in multiple sclerosis: Results of a randomized phase 2b and extension study","volume":"28","author":"Hartung","year":"2022","journal-title":"Mult. Scler. J."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Morandi, E., Tanasescu, R., Tarlinton, R.E., Constantin-Teodosiu, D., and Gran, B. (2019). Do antiretroviral drugs protect from multiple sclerosis by inhibiting expression of MS-associated retrovirus?. Front. Immunol., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2018.03092"},{"key":"ref_62","first-page":"1211","article-title":"Safety Profile of Temelimab, an Anti\u2013Human Endogenous Retrovirus Type W Envelope Monoclonal Antibody, in Patients with Multiple Sclerosis: A Pooled Analysis of Randomized Clinical Trials","volume":"43","author":"Kornmann","year":"2020","journal-title":"Drug Saf."},{"key":"ref_63","first-page":"411","article-title":"Nucleotide Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors: A Thorough Review, Present Status and Future Perspective as HIV Therapeutics","volume":"15","author":"Holec","year":"2017","journal-title":"Curr. HIV Res."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Foka, F.E.T., and Mufhandu, H.T. (2023). Current ARTs, Virologic Failure, and Implications for AIDS Management: A Systematic Review. Viruses, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/v15081732"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102878","DOI":"10.1016\/j.arr.2025.102878","article-title":"Nucleoside Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors as a Therapeutic Opportunity to Counteract Inflammaging and Age-Related Diseases: New Evidence from Epidemiological Data","volume":"112","author":"Fabiola","year":"2025","journal-title":"Ageing Res. Rev."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1016\/j.msard.2018.02.029","article-title":"Could antiretrovirals be treating EBV in MS? A case report","volume":"22","author":"Drosu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Mult. Scler. Relat. Disord."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"0300060521999577","DOI":"10.1177\/0300060521999577","article-title":"HIV infection and multiple sclerosis: A case with unexpected \u201cno evidence of disease activity\u201d status","volume":"49","author":"Labella","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Int. Med. Res."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105396","DOI":"10.1016\/j.msard.2023.105396","article-title":"Radiologic and clinical stability after tenofovir in HIV-negative MS","volume":"83","author":"Drosu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Mult. Scler. Relat. Disord."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105436","DOI":"10.1016\/j.msard.2024.105436","article-title":"Antiviral therapy with tenofovir in MS.","volume":"83","author":"Torkildsen","year":"2024","journal-title":"Mult. Scler. Relat. Disord."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e70180","DOI":"10.1002\/alz.70180","article-title":"Association of Nucleoside Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitor Use with Reduced Risk of Alzheimer\u2019s Disease","volume":"21","author":"Magagnoli","year":"2025","journal-title":"Alzheimer\u2019s Dement."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7765","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1400075111","article-title":"Bacterial RNA: DNA Hybrids Are Activators of the NLRP3 Inflammasome","volume":"111","author":"Rathinam","year":"2014","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"305","DOI":"10.1007\/s40263-024-01153-5","article-title":"Repurposing licensed drugs with anti-EBV activity for MS","volume":"39","author":"Li","year":"2025","journal-title":"CNS Drugs"},{"key":"ref_73","unstructured":"Shapiro, L. (2026, March 20). Can Epstein-Barr Virus Cause Multiple Sclerosis?. Available online: https:\/\/multiplesclerosisnewstoday.com\/epstein-barr-virus-and-ms\/."},{"key":"ref_74","unstructured":"Australian New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry (ANZCTR) (2026, April 26). Efficacy of Reducing Fatigue in Relapsing Multiple Sclerosis: An Epstein Barr Virus Treatment Trial (FIRMS EBV). Available online: https:\/\/anzctr.org.au\/Trial\/Registration\/TrialReview.aspx?ACTRN=12624000423516."},{"key":"ref_75","unstructured":"ClinicalTrials.gov, and Massachusetts General Hospital (2026, April 26). Effects of Antiviral Therapies on Epstein-Barr Virus Replication, Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/study\/NCT05957913."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"lqag013","DOI":"10.1093\/nargab\/lqag013","article-title":"A Comprehensive Annotation of Conserved Protein Domains in Human Endogenous Retroviruses","volume":"8","author":"Pujol","year":"2026","journal-title":"NAR Genom. Bioinform."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2200260119","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2200260119","article-title":"Human Endogenous Retrovirus-K (HERV-K) Reverse Transcriptase (RT) Structure and Biochemistry Reveals Remarkable Similarities to HIV-1 RT and Opportunities for HERV-K\u2013Specific Inhibition","volume":"119","author":"Baldwin","year":"2022","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"358","DOI":"10.1080\/19768354.2021.2019109","article-title":"Syncytin: No longer \u201cfossil\u201d in the human genome","volume":"25","author":"Durnaoglu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Anim. Cells Syst."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nikolopoulos, N., and Modis, Y. (2025). Crystal structure of HERV-K envelope glycoprotein surface subunit. bioRxiv.","DOI":"10.1101\/2025.10.24.684402"}],"container-title":["Neurology International"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2035-8377\/18\/5\/89\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,25]],"date-time":"2026-05-25T07:27:45Z","timestamp":1779694065000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2035-8377\/18\/5\/89"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,12]]},"references-count":79,"journal-issue":{"issue":"5","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5]]}},"alternative-id":["neurolint18050089"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/neurolint18050089","relation":{},"ISSN":["2035-8377"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2035-8377","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,12]]}}}