{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,1]],"date-time":"2026-10-01T12:09:18Z","timestamp":1790856558856,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":103,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,4]],"date-time":"2026-06-04T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1780531200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Neurology International"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The pathophysiological basis of Parkinson\u2019s disease (PD) remains incompletely understood. However, the influence of environmental factors, such as continuous cadmium exposure, requires further investigation. Notably, common comorbidities such as iron deficiency anemia (IDA), chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), and zinc deficiency are linked with increased cadmium bioavailability, and elevated blood cadmium levels have been reported in individuals with PD. Cd (II) deposits in the midbrain, causing the accumulation of inflammatory lipids, which promote neuronal destruction. Cd-treated animals develop Parkinson-like syndromes, and cadmium exposure is associated with neuronal loss and disruption of dopaminergic receptor expression. Neurofilament light chain (NfL), a biomarker of neurodegeneration, has been found to be elevated in patients with Parkinson\u2019s disease and correlates with Cd blood concentrations. Iron deficiency promotes the secretion of FGF-23, which depletes vitamin D levels, further increasing the risk of PD. Moreover, COPD and IDA are two well-known examples of systemic hypoxia, which attracts metals bound to transferrin, such as cadmium and iron, leading to increased metal accumulation in various tissues, including the brain. Lead levels are also elevated in individuals with IDA, contributing to the risk of PD. Additionally, Cd exposure is associated with a reduced abundance of Lachnospiraceae in stool and decreased levels of butyrate, both of which are characteristic features of patients with Parkinson\u2019s disease. Therefore, this review aims to explore how COPD, IDA, and zinc deficiency\u2014known risk factors for Parkinson\u2019s disease\u2014lead to an increased cadmium burden and contribute to the onset and progression of the disease.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/neurolint18060111","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,4]],"date-time":"2026-06-04T17:11:04Z","timestamp":1780593064000},"page":"111","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Cadmium-Induced Toxicity as a Pathophysiological Mechanism for Parkinson\u2019s Disease Onset in Individuals with Iron and Zinc Deficiencies and Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"given":"Milan","family":"Aksic","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Anatomy, Faculty of Medicine, University of Belgrade, Dr Subotica 4\/2, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ana","family":"Cirovic","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Anatomy, Faculty of Medicine, University of Belgrade, Dr Subotica 4\/2, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5806-9858","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Orish Ebere","family":"Orisakwe","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Advanced Research Centre, European University of Lefke, TR-10, Mersin 99010, Turkey"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Vuk","family":"Djulejic","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Anatomy, Faculty of Medicine, University of Belgrade, Dr Subotica 4\/2, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Bruna","family":"Puty","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Functional and Structural Biology, Institute of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Par\u00e1, Augusto Corr\u00eaa Street, n. 01, Bel\u00e9m 66075-110, PA, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1486-4013","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rafael Rodrigues","family":"Lima","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Functional and Structural Biology, Institute of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Par\u00e1, Augusto Corr\u00eaa Street, n. 01, Bel\u00e9m 66075-110, PA, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6010-9559","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Aleksandar","family":"Cirovic","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Anatomy, Faculty of Medicine, University of Belgrade, Dr Subotica 4\/2, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,4]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"e2020088","article-title":"Prevalence of Parkinson Disease in Italy: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"91","author":"Vezzosi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Acta Bio Medica Atenei Parm."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1257","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-4422(16)30230-7","article-title":"The epidemiology of Parkinson\u2019s disease: Risk factors and prevention","volume":"15","author":"Ascherio","year":"2016","journal-title":"Lancet Neurol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"314","DOI":"10.1111\/ane.12563","article-title":"The genetic background of Parkinson\u2019s disease: Current progress and future prospects","volume":"134","author":"Kalinderi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Acta Neurol. 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