{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,25]],"date-time":"2026-06-25T14:51:52Z","timestamp":1782399112217,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":168,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,25]],"date-time":"2026-06-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1782345600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Neurology International"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Prenatal alcohol exposure (PAE) is recognized as a major public health concern due to its profound and lasting effects on the central nervous system (CNS) and its ability to induce fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD), which encompass a wide range of cognitive, behavioural, and neuropsychiatric disorders that persist throughout life. Experimental and clinical studies have identified several mechanisms underlying ethanol impairing brain development, including apoptosis, oxidative stress, disruption of morphogen and growth factor signalling pathways, impaired neuronal proliferation and migration, neurotransmitter systems\u2019 dysfunction, glial cells damage associated with deficient myelination, vascular and blood\u2013brain barrier (BBB) alterations, and lasting epigenetic reprogramming. However, to date no widely accepted integrative framework explaining how these impairments underline the heterogeneous phenotype observed in FASD is available. The present brings together developmental neurobiology and computational neuroscience to conceptualize PAE as a disorder of emerging neural and functional architecture. Here, we summarize the pharmacokinetics of ethanol in pregnancy, critical windows of vulnerability, and the classical pathways of alcohol teratogenesis affecting neuronal survival, migration, synaptogenesis, myelination, and gene regulation. We have also reviewed MRI, diffusion imaging, and EEG\/MEG evidence showing altered brain volumes, white matter microstructure, functional connectivity, and network organization in individuals with PAE. Finally, we propose a systems-level model that conceptualizes PAE as a disorder of emerging neuro-computational architecture, in which ethanol-induced cellular and molecular perturbations collectively alter the building blocks and self-organization rules of brain network assembly.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/neurolint18070123","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,25]],"date-time":"2026-06-25T12:37:55Z","timestamp":1782391075000},"page":"123","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Developmental Neurotoxicity of Alcohol from Neuronal Basis to Behavioural Outcomes: A Comprehensive Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"given":"Kamal","family":"Smimih","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Biological Engineering Laboratory, Faculty of Sciences and Technology (FST), Sultane Moulay Slimane University, Beni Mellal 23000, Morocco"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0005-7129-1794","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Chaima","family":"Azzouhri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Nutritional Physiopathologies, Neuroscience and Toxicology Team, Laboratory of Anthropogenic, Biotechnology and Health, Faculty of Sciences, Chouaib Doukkali University, El Jadida 24000, Morocco"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2583-7515","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bilal","family":"El-Mansoury","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Nutritional Physiopathologies, Neuroscience and Toxicology Team, Laboratory of Anthropogenic, Biotechnology and Health, Faculty of Sciences, Chouaib Doukkali University, El Jadida 24000, Morocco"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ahmed","family":"Draoui","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Biological Engineering Laboratory, Faculty of Sciences and Technology (FST), Sultane Moulay Slimane University, Beni Mellal 23000, Morocco"},{"name":"Ecole Sup\u00e9rieure d\u2019Education et de Formation (ESEF), Sultane Moulay Slimane University, Beni Mellal 23000, Morocco"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hasna","family":"Lahouaoui","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Higher Institute of Nursing Professions and Health Techniques, Ministry of Health, Laayoune 70000, Morocco"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Abdelali","family":"Bitar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Nutritional Physiopathologies, Neuroscience and Toxicology Team, Laboratory of Anthropogenic, Biotechnology and Health, Faculty of Sciences, Chouaib Doukkali University, El Jadida 24000, Morocco"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9837-4312","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mohamed","family":"Merzouki","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Biological Engineering Laboratory, Faculty of Sciences and Technology (FST), Sultane Moulay Slimane University, Beni Mellal 23000, Morocco"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0581-4164","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Omar","family":"El Hiba","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Nutritional Physiopathologies, Neuroscience and Toxicology Team, Laboratory of Anthropogenic, Biotechnology and Health, Faculty of Sciences, Chouaib Doukkali University, El Jadida 24000, Morocco"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2148","DOI":"10.1111\/add.15036","article-title":"Alcohol use in pregnancy and its impact on the mother and child","volume":"115","author":"Oei","year":"2020","journal-title":"Addiction"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"760","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-4422(19)30150-4","article-title":"Diagnosis, epidemiology, assessment, pathophysiology, and management of fetal alcohol spectrum disorders","volume":"18","author":"Wozniak","year":"2019","journal-title":"Lancet Neurol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Okulicz-Kozaryn, K. 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