{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,30]],"date-time":"2026-07-30T18:24:00Z","timestamp":1785435840477,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":34,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,20]],"date-time":"2026-07-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1784505600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100009392","name":"Prince Sattam bin Abdulaziz University","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["PSAU\/2025\/3\/37092"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PSAU\/2025\/3\/37092"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100009392","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["PSAU\/2025\/3\/37092"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PSAU\/2025\/3\/37092"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/04jt46d36","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Neurology International"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: The role of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) transforming growth factor \u03b2 (TGF-\u03b2) isoforms in Alzheimer\u2019s disease (AD) remains unclear. We examined associations of CSF TGF-\u03b21, TGF-\u03b22, and TGF-\u03b23 with AD biomarkers, neurodegeneration, cognition, and clinical progression. Methods: In 294 ADNI participants with baseline CSF TGF-\u03b2 measurements, adjusted regression, and mixed-effect models were used to evaluate associations with CSF biomarkers, neuroimaging, cognitive outcomes, and conversion. False-discovery-rate correction was applied. Results: Higher baseline TGF-\u03b21 was associated with higher CSF total tau (\u03b2 = 52.68 pg\/mL per 1 SD increase; q &lt; 0.001) and p-tau (\u03b2 = 5.68 pg\/mL; q &lt; 0.001). Higher TGF-\u03b22 was associated with faster hippocampal volume loss (\u03b2 = \u221245.42 mm3\/year; q &lt; 0.001). No isoform was robustly associated with FDG-PET decline, cognitive decline, clinical conversion, or time to conversion. Conclusions: CSF TGF-\u03b21 and TGF-\u03b22 show distinct associations with tau-related pathology and hippocampal neurodegeneration, respectively, but do not appear to be prognostic biomarkers of clinical progression in AD.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/neurolint18070138","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,20]],"date-time":"2026-07-20T16:19:27Z","timestamp":1784564367000},"page":"138","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Cerebrospinal Fluid Transforming Growth Factor \u03b2 Isoforms and Disease Progression in Alzheimer\u2019s Disease: Longitudinal Evidence from the ADNI Cohort"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0007-5094-7787","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Manal","family":"Aljuhani","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Radiology and Medical Imaging, College of Applied Medical Sciences, Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University, Al-Kharj 16278, Saudi Arabia"},{"name":"Radiological Sciences and Technology Research Unit, College of Applied Medical Sciences, Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University, Al-Kharj 16278, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Azhaar","family":"Ashraf","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Neurology, Department of Brain Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, London W12 0NN, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6142-497X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Abdullah","family":"Alqarni","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Radiology and Medical Imaging, College of Applied Medical Sciences, Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University, Al-Kharj 16278, Saudi Arabia"},{"name":"Radiological Sciences and Technology Research Unit, College of Applied Medical Sciences, Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University, Al-Kharj 16278, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9775-384X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mohammed S.","family":"Alshuhri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Radiology and Medical Imaging, College of Applied Medical Sciences, Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University, Al-Kharj 16278, Saudi Arabia"},{"name":"Radiological Sciences and Technology Research Unit, College of Applied Medical Sciences, Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University, Al-Kharj 16278, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Essam Mohammed","family":"Alkhybari","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Radiology and Medical Imaging, College of Applied Medical Sciences, Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University, Al-Kharj 16278, Saudi Arabia"},{"name":"Radiological Sciences and Technology Research Unit, College of Applied Medical Sciences, Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University, Al-Kharj 16278, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Amani","family":"Alharbi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Radiology and Medical Imaging, College of Applied Medical Sciences, Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University, Al-Kharj 16278, Saudi Arabia"},{"name":"Radiological Sciences and Technology Research Unit, College of Applied Medical Sciences, Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University, Al-Kharj 16278, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alanoud","family":"Almudayni","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Radiology and Medical Imaging, College of Applied Medical Sciences, Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University, Al-Kharj 16278, Saudi Arabia"},{"name":"Radiological Sciences and Technology Research Unit, College of Applied Medical Sciences, Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University, Al-Kharj 16278, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Fatmah Jamal","family":"Alablani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Radiology and Medical Imaging, College of Applied Medical Sciences, Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University, Al-Kharj 16278, Saudi Arabia"},{"name":"Radiological Sciences and Technology Research Unit, College of Applied Medical Sciences, Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University, Al-Kharj 16278, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0005-0678-3645","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Azhar","family":"Akhmimi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Cardiovascular Technology-Echocardiography, College of Applied Medical Sciences, King Saud Bin Abdulaziz University for Health Sciences, Riyadh 11481, Saudi Arabia"},{"name":"King Abdullah International Medical Research Centre, Riyadh 11481, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6393-5415","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ahmad A.","family":"Alhulail","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Radiology and Medical Imaging, College of Applied Medical Sciences, Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University, Al-Kharj 16278, Saudi Arabia"},{"name":"Radiological Sciences and Technology Research Unit, College of Applied Medical Sciences, Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University, Al-Kharj 16278, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1038\/s41572-021-00269-y","article-title":"Alzheimer disease","volume":"7","author":"Knopman","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. 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