{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T00:53:00Z","timestamp":1760143980732,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":39,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,12]],"date-time":"2024-03-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1710201600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["NeuroSci"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an autoimmune disease affecting the central nervous system (CNS). The diagnosis of MS is based on clinical signs and symptoms as well as findings in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) sequences by demonstrating the spatial and temporal dispersion of white matter lesions, which are thought to be typical of MS in distribution, shape, extent, and signal abnormalities. Spinal cord MRI can identify asymptomatic lesions and rule out malignancies or spinal stenosis in patients for whom brain imaging is not helpful in making an MS diagnosis. This study examines the MRI features of Saudi Arabian patients clinically proven to have MS with typical lesions exclusively evident in the spinal cord. This retrospective cross-sectional study was carried out in 151 patients who are confirmed cases of MS based on clinical findings and MRI results. Patients\u2019 MRI data were reviewed from the picture archiving and communication system (PACS). The study revealed that MS incidence was higher in females than males and that the number of people diagnosed with MS increased in middle age. Cervical cord plaques and cervical cord curve straightening were the most frequent changes (67% and 56%, respectively), indicating that MRI can complement and even replace clinical data in MS diagnosis, leading to earlier, more precise diagnoses and speedier starts to treatment.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/neurosci5010006","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,12]],"date-time":"2024-03-12T03:55:34Z","timestamp":1710215734000},"page":"87-97","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Exploring Spinal Cord Changes in Multiple Sclerosis Patients Using MRI"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"5","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5691-9118","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Amani A.","family":"Alrehaili","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical Laboratory Sciences, College of Applied Medical Sciences, Taif University, P.O. Box 11099, Taif 21944, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Nahla L.","family":"Faizo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Radiological Sciences, College of Applied Medical Sciences, Taif University, P.O. Box 11099, Taif 21944, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Batool M.","family":"Alsulimani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Radiological Sciences, College of Applied Medical Sciences, Taif University, P.O. Box 11099, Taif 21944, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Raghad K.","family":"Alsulimani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Radiological Sciences, College of Applied Medical Sciences, Taif University, P.O. Box 11099, Taif 21944, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Dana A.","family":"Aldwaila","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Radiological Sciences, College of Applied Medical Sciences, Taif University, P.O. Box 11099, Taif 21944, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Nada J.","family":"Alqarni","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Radiological Sciences, College of Applied Medical Sciences, Taif University, P.O. Box 11099, Taif 21944, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Nisreen Lutfi","family":"Faizo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical Anatomy, Faculty of Medicine, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101452","DOI":"10.1016\/j.msard.2019.101452","article-title":"Differential diagnosis of multiple sclerosis and other inflammatory CNS diseases","volume":"37","author":"Wildner","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mult. Scler. Relat. Disord."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dargahi, N., Katsara, M., Tselios, T., Androutsou, M.E., de Courten, M., Matsoukas, J., and Apostolopoulos, V. (2017). Multiple Sclerosis: Immunopathology and Treatment Update. Brain Sci., 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci7070078"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"627","DOI":"10.1007\/s00401-012-0953-0","article-title":"Primary progressive multiple sclerosis: Part of the MS disease spectrum or separate disease entity?","volume":"123","author":"Antel","year":"2012","journal-title":"Acta Neuropathol."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Tafti, D., and Ehsan, M. (2023). Multiple Sclerosis. StatPearls, 2022. WHAT IS MS?, National MS Society."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"752","DOI":"10.1097\/WCO.0000000000000622","article-title":"Multiple sclerosis: Clinical aspects","volume":"31","author":"Oh","year":"2018","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e914","DOI":"10.1212\/NXI.0000000000000914","article-title":"Is MS affecting the CNS only? Lessons from clinic to myelin pathophysiology","volume":"8","author":"Oudejans","year":"2020","journal-title":"Neurol. Neuroimmunol. Neuroinflammation"},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"125","article-title":"The role of MRI in the diagnosis of multiple sclerosis","volume":"98","author":"Traboulsee","year":"2006","journal-title":"Adv. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"a028969","DOI":"10.1101\/cshperspect.a028969","article-title":"Magnetic Resonance Imaging in Multiple Sclerosis","volume":"8","author":"Hemond","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cold Spring Harb. Perspect. Med."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2067","DOI":"10.1007\/s00330-006-0195-4","article-title":"Higher sensitivity in the detection of inflammatory brain lesions in patients with clinically isolated syndromes suggestive of multiple sclerosis using high field MRI: An intraindividual comparison of 1.5 T with 3.0 T","volume":"16","author":"Wattjes","year":"2006","journal-title":"Eur. Radiol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.1007\/s00062-015-0430-y","article-title":"MRI in the Diagnosis and Monitoring of Multiple Sclerosis: An Update","volume":"25","author":"Wattjes","year":"2015","journal-title":"Clin. Neuroradiol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1286","DOI":"10.1007\/s00415-022-11488-y","article-title":"Present and future of the diagnostic work-up of multiple sclerosis: The imaging perspective","volume":"270","author":"Fillippi","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1159","DOI":"10.1007\/s00415-008-0861-3","article-title":"Does high field MRI allow an earlier diagnosis of multiple sclerosis?","volume":"255","author":"Wattjes","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1215774","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2023.1215774","article-title":"Do magnetic resonance imaging features differ between persons with multiple sclerosis of various races and ethnicities?","volume":"14","author":"Nathoo","year":"2023","journal-title":"Front. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alluqmani, M., Roda, W., Qqrmli, M., Blevins, G., Giuliani, F., and Power, C. (2021). Differential disease phenotypes and progression in relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis: Comparative analyses of single Canadian and Saudi Arabian clinics. BMC Neurol., 21.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12883-021-02317-2"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"247","DOI":"10.1177\/1756285617708911","article-title":"MRI in the assessment and monitoring of multiple sclerosis: An update on best practice","volume":"10","author":"Kaunzner","year":"2017","journal-title":"Ther. Adv. Neurol. Disord."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.1111\/jon.12271","article-title":"Whole Brain Volume Measured from 1.5T versus 3T MRI in Healthy Subjects and Patients with Multiple Sclerosis","volume":"26","author":"Chu","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Neuroimaging"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1333","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clineuro.2012.12.035","article-title":"Newly diagnosed multiple sclerosis in state of Qatar","volume":"115","author":"Akhtar","year":"2013","journal-title":"Clin. Neurol. Neurosurg."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"320","DOI":"10.17712\/nsj.2018.4.20180235","article-title":"Demographic and disease characteristics of multiple sclerosis in the Southwest Region of Saudi Arabia","volume":"23","author":"Siddiqui","year":"2018","journal-title":"Neurosciences"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"232","DOI":"10.1159\/000431042","article-title":"Multiple sclerosis epidemiology in Middle East and North Africa: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"44","author":"Heydarpour","year":"2015","journal-title":"Neuroepidemiology"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"AlJumah, M., Bunyan, R., Al Otaibi, H., Al Towaijri, G., Karim, A., Al Malik, Y., Kalakatawi, M., Alrajeh, S., Al Mejally, M., and Algahtani, H. (2020). Rising prevalence of multiple sclerosis in Saudi Arabia, a descriptive study. BMC Neurol., 20.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12883-020-1629-3"},{"key":"ref_21","first-page":"e41650","article-title":"Diffusion-Weighted Images and Contrast-Enhanced MRI in the Diagnosis of Different Stages of Multiple Sclerosis of the Central Nervous System","volume":"15","author":"Ismail","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cureus"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"818652","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2022.818652","article-title":"Aging with Multiple Sclerosis: Age-Related Factors and Socioeconomic Risks","volume":"13","author":"Andersen","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20160721","DOI":"10.1259\/bjr.20160721","article-title":"Multiple sclerosis update: Use of MRI for early diagnosis, disease monitoring and assessment of treatment related complications","volume":"90","author":"Igra","year":"2017","journal-title":"Br. J. Radiol."},{"key":"ref_24","first-page":"616","article-title":"Cervical Spinal Cord Lesions and Atrophy versus Brain Measures in Explaining Physical Disability in Multiple Sclerosis","volume":"296","author":"Zivadinov","year":"2020","journal-title":"Rnsa"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"327","DOI":"10.1038\/nrneurol.2015.80","article-title":"Spinal cord MRI in multiple sclerosis\u2014Diagnostic, prognostic and clinical value","volume":"11","author":"Kearney","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1756286419840593","DOI":"10.1177\/1756286419840593","article-title":"Advances in spinal cord imaging in multiple sclerosis","volume":"12","author":"Moccia","year":"2019","journal-title":"Ther. Adv. Neurol. Disord."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"722801","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2021.722801","article-title":"Integrated Management of Multiple Sclerosis Spasticity and Associated Symptoms Using the Spasticity-Plus Syndrome Concept: Results of a Structured Specialists\u2019 Discussion Using the Workmat\u00ae Methodology","volume":"12","author":"Fernandez","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_28","first-page":"136","article-title":"MRI Markers of Degenerative Disc Disease in Young Patients with Multiple Sclerosis","volume":"75","author":"Thornhill","year":"2023","journal-title":"Can. Assoc. Radiol. J."},{"key":"ref_29","first-page":"455","article-title":"Standardized MR imaging protocol for multiple sclerosis: Consortium of MS centers consensus guidelines","volume":"27","author":"Simon","year":"2006","journal-title":"Am. J. Neuroradiol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2497","DOI":"10.1111\/ene.14855","article-title":"Cervical spinal degenerative disease in multiple sclerosis","volume":"28","author":"Chhugani","year":"2021","journal-title":"Eur. J. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"399","DOI":"10.5272\/jimab.2013191.399","article-title":"Simultaneous disc herniation in patients with multiple sclerosis","volume":"19","author":"Drenska","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. IMAB"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104","DOI":"10.1016\/j.joca.2013.10.019","article-title":"Prevalence and distribution of intervertebral disc degeneration over the entire spine in a population-based cohort: The Wakayama Spine Study","volume":"22","author":"Teraguchi","year":"2014","journal-title":"Osteoarthr. Cartil."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"556","DOI":"10.1111\/jon.12553","article-title":"Spinal Cord Atrophy in Multiple Sclerosis: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"28","author":"Casserly","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Neuroimaging"},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Abdel-Aziz, K., and Ciccarelli, O. (2014). Quantitative MRI of the Spinal Cord, ScienceDirect."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"268","DOI":"10.1002\/ana.26281","article-title":"Spinal Cord Atrophy Predicts Progressive Disease in Relapsing Multiple Sclerosis","volume":"91","author":"Bischof","year":"2022","journal-title":"Ann. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bianco, A., Antonacci, Y., and Liguori, M. (2023). Sex and Gender Differences in Neurodegenerative Diseases: Challenges for Therapeutic Opportunities. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms24076354"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejrad.2017.03.017","article-title":"The association between multiple sclerosis and spondylosis: When and why","volume":"91","author":"Xydis","year":"2017","journal-title":"Eur. J. Radiol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1017\/S0317167100043079","article-title":"Spinal cord swelling in multiple sclerosis","volume":"8","author":"Feasby","year":"1981","journal-title":"Can. J. Neurol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e249","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.0000000000005825","article-title":"Three-Tesla MRI does not improve the diagnosis of multiple sclerosis: A multicenter study","volume":"91","author":"Hagens","year":"2018","journal-title":"Neurology"}],"container-title":["NeuroSci"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2673-4087\/5\/1\/6\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T14:12:08Z","timestamp":1760105528000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2673-4087\/5\/1\/6"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,12]]},"references-count":39,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,3]]}},"alternative-id":["neurosci5010006"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/neurosci5010006","relation":{},"ISSN":["2673-4087"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2673-4087"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,12]]}}}