{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,3]],"date-time":"2026-06-03T18:42:16Z","timestamp":1780512136032,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":59,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,18]],"date-time":"2025-11-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1763424000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["NeuroSci"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The rising prevalence of neuroimmune disorders such as multiple sclerosis and fibromyalgia has renewed interest in the hygiene hypothesis, which posits that reduced early-life microbial exposure deprives the immune system of formative \u201cnoise\u201d that calibrates thresholds of tolerance. We extended this framework by introducing stochastic resonance (SR), a system phenomenon in which optimally tuned noise enhances weak-signal detection in nonlinear networks, as a potential surrogate for missing microbial variability. As electrical noise and subthreshold stimulation have been shown to modulate cortical excitability and enhance perception, microbial noise may be necessary for sustaining immune plasticity. Conversely, a lack of stimulation, whether microbial or electrical, can lead to maladaptive states characterized by dysregulated signaling and heightened vulnerability to chronic inflammation. Evidence from immunology highlights noise-aware processes, such as T-cell receptor proofreading, NF-\u03baB pulsatility, and cytokine quorum sensing, all of which exploit stochastic fluctuations. Computational tumor\u2013immune models similarly suggest that tuned noise can optimize immune surveillance. Clinical data from neuroscience demonstrate that subsensory electrical noise improves motor excitability and sensory perception, whereas vagus nerve stimulation modulates inflammatory pathways, underscoring translational feasibility. We propose that SR reframes noise from a biological error to a therapeutic resource capable of recalibrating dysregulated neuroimmune thresholds. This conceptual synthesis positions microbial and electrical noise as parallel modulators of tolerance and outlines testable predictions with translational potential for neuroimmune disorders.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/neurosci6040118","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,18]],"date-time":"2025-11-18T09:58:42Z","timestamp":1763459922000},"page":"118","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Noise as Medicine: The Role of Microbial and Electrical Noise in Restoring Neuroimmune Tolerance Through Stochastic Resonance"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"6","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5711-9681","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Eneidy","family":"Pi\u00f1a Mojica","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Neuromodulation Center and Center for Clinical Research Learning, Spaulding Rehabilitation Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0002-7309-918X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Joao Victor","family":"Ribeiro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Neuromodulation Center and Center for Clinical Research Learning, Spaulding Rehabilitation Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1703-7526","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Felipe","family":"Fregni","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Neuromodulation Center and Center for Clinical Research Learning, Spaulding Rehabilitation Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bach, J.-F. 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