{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,29]],"date-time":"2026-09-29T09:59:04Z","timestamp":1790675944882,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":48,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2018,6,7]],"date-time":"2018-06-07T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1528329600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nutrients"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Glutamine is a potent stimulus for the release of glucagon-like peptide-1, which increases postprandial insulin and slows gastric emptying (GE). We determined the effects of glutamine on GE of, and glycaemic responses to, low- and high-nutrient drinks in eight healthy males (mean age 21.6 \u00b1 0.7 years and BMI 22.9 \u00b1 0.7 kg\/m2). Participants were studied on four occasions on which they consumed either a low-nutrient (beef soup; 18 kcal) or high-nutrient (75 g dextrose; 255 kcal) drink, each with or without 30 g of glutamine (120 kcal), in a randomised, crossover design. GE (2D ultrasound), blood glucose and plasma insulin concentrations were measured concurrently. Glutamine slowed GE (half emptying time (T50)) of both low- (45 \u00b1 3 min vs. 26 \u00b1 2 min, p &lt; 0.001), and high-nutrient, (100 \u00b1 5 min vs. 77 \u00b1 5 min, p = 0.03) drinks, however, there was no effect on GE of the high nutrient drinks when expressed as kcal\/min (3.39 \u00b1 0.21 kcal\/min vs. 3.81 \u00b1 0.20 kcal\/min, p = 0.25). There was no change in blood glucose after the low-nutrient drinks with or without glutamine, despite a slight increase in plasma insulin with glutamine (p = 0.007). The rise in blood glucose following the high-nutrient drink (p = 0.0001) was attenuated during the first 60 min by glutamine (p = 0.007). We conclude that in healthy subjects, glutamine slows GE of both low- and high-nutrient drinks comparably and attenuates the rise in blood glucose after the high-nutrient glucose drink.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/nu10060739","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,6,8]],"date-time":"2018-06-08T03:13:18Z","timestamp":1528427598000},"page":"739","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["Effects of Glutamine on Gastric Emptying of Low- and High-Nutrient Drinks in Healthy Young Subjects\u2014Impact on Glycaemia"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"10","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1741-9866","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yang T.","family":"Du","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Endocrine and Metabolic Unit, Royal Adelaide Hospital, Adelaide, SA 5000, Australia"},{"name":"Adelaide Medical School, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA 5000, Australia"},{"name":"NHMRC Centre of Research Excellence in Translating Nutritional Science to Good Health, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA 5000, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3894-8203","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Diana","family":"Piscitelli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Adelaide Medical School, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA 5000, Australia"},{"name":"School of Health Sciences, University of South Australia, Adelaide, SA 5000, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Saima","family":"Ahmad","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Health Sciences, University of South Australia, Adelaide, SA 5000, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Laurence G.","family":"Trahair","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Adelaide Medical School, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA 5000, Australia"},{"name":"NHMRC Centre of Research Excellence in Translating Nutritional Science to Good Health, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA 5000, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jerry R.","family":"Greenfield","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Diabetes and Metabolism Division, Garvan Institute of Medical Research, Sydney, NSW 2010, Australia"},{"name":"Department of Endocrinology and Diabetes, St Vincent\u2019s Hospital, Sydney, NSW 2010, Australia"},{"name":"St Vincent\u2019s Clinical School, Faculty of Medicine, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2010, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9422-7852","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dorit","family":"Samocha-Bonet","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Diabetes and Metabolism Division, Garvan Institute of Medical Research, Sydney, NSW 2010, Australia"},{"name":"St Vincent\u2019s Clinical School, Faculty of Medicine, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2010, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Christopher K.","family":"Rayner","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Adelaide Medical School, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA 5000, Australia"},{"name":"NHMRC Centre of Research Excellence in Translating Nutritional Science to Good Health, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA 5000, Australia"},{"name":"Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Royal Adelaide Hospital, Adelaide, SA 5000, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Michael","family":"Horowitz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Endocrine and Metabolic Unit, Royal Adelaide Hospital, Adelaide, SA 5000, Australia"},{"name":"Adelaide Medical School, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA 5000, Australia"},{"name":"NHMRC Centre of Research Excellence in Translating Nutritional Science to Good Health, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA 5000, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1155-5816","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Karen L.","family":"Jones","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Adelaide Medical School, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA 5000, Australia"},{"name":"NHMRC Centre of Research Excellence in Translating Nutritional Science to Good Health, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA 5000, Australia"},{"name":"School of Health Sciences, University of South Australia, Adelaide, SA 5000, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,6,7]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"881","DOI":"10.2337\/diacare.26.3.881","article-title":"Contributions of fasting and postprandial plasma glucose increments to the overall diurnal hyperglycemia of type 2 diabetic patients: Variations with increasing levels of HbA(1c)","volume":"26","author":"Monnier","year":"2003","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26H","DOI":"10.1016\/S0002-9149(01)01834-3","article-title":"Controlling postprandial hyperglycemia","volume":"88","author":"Ratner","year":"2001","journal-title":"Am. J. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"397","DOI":"10.1001\/archinte.161.3.397","article-title":"Glucose tolerance and cardiovascular mortality: Comparison of fasting and 2-hour diagnostic criteria","volume":"161","author":"Neil","year":"2001","journal-title":"Arch. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"371","DOI":"10.1016\/0950-3528(91)90034-X","article-title":"Disordered gastric emptying: Mechanical basis, assessment and treatment","volume":"5","author":"Horowitz","year":"1991","journal-title":"Baillieres Clin. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"857","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00400362","article-title":"Relationship between oral glucose tolerance and gastric emptying in normal healthy subjects","volume":"36","author":"Horowitz","year":"1993","journal-title":"Diabetologia"},{"key":"ref_6","first-page":"1643","article-title":"Gastric emptying in early noninsulin-dependent diabetes mellitus","volume":"37","author":"Jones","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Nucl. Med."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"405","DOI":"10.1007\/s11892-009-0062-1","article-title":"Fiber facts: Benefits and recommendations for individuals with type 2 diabetes","volume":"9","author":"Vuksan","year":"2009","journal-title":"Curr. Diabetes Rep."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2062","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2005-2644","article-title":"Effects of fat on gastric emptying of and the glycemic, insulin, and incretin responses to a carbohydrate meal in type 2 diabetes","volume":"91","author":"Gentilcore","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S3","DOI":"10.1331\/JAPhA.2009.09077","article-title":"Type 2 diabetes: Where we are today: An overview of disease burden, current treatments, and treatment strategies","volume":"49","author":"Campbell","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Am. Pharm. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3082","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2002-021545","article-title":"Synthetic exendin-4 (exenatide) significantly reduces postprandial and fasting plasma glucose in subjects with type 2 diabetes","volume":"88","author":"Kolterman","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-2982.2002.00311.x","article-title":"Effects of pramlintide, an amylin analogue, on gastric emptying in type 1 and 2 diabetes mellitus","volume":"14","author":"Vella","year":"2002","journal-title":"Neurogastroenterol. Motil."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"375","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nut.2009.05.013","article-title":"The safety of oral use of l-glutamine in middle-aged and elderly individuals","volume":"26","author":"Galera","year":"2010","journal-title":"Nutrition"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1016\/j.regpep.2009.08.001","article-title":"Selective amino acid deficiency in patients with impaired glucose tolerance and type 2 diabetes","volume":"160","author":"Menge","year":"2010","journal-title":"Regul. Pept."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1233","DOI":"10.3945\/jn.111.139824","article-title":"Glutamine reduces postprandial glycemia and augments the glucagon-like peptide-1 response in type 2 diabetes patients","volume":"141","author":"Wong","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Samocha-Bonet, D., Chisholm, D.J., Gribble, F.M., Coster, A.C., Carpenter, K.H., Jones, G.R., Holst, J.J., and Greenfield, J.R. (2014). Glycemic effects and safety of L-Glutamine supplementation with or without sitagliptin in type 2 diabetes patients\u2014A randomized study. PLoS ONE, 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0113366"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106","DOI":"10.3945\/ajcn.2008.26362","article-title":"Oral glutamine increases circulating glucagon-like peptide 1, glucagon, and insulin concentrations in lean, obese, and type 2 diabetic subjects","volume":"89","author":"Greenfield","year":"2009","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.ejcn.1601517","article-title":"Oral glutamine in paediatric oncology patients: A dose finding study","volume":"57","author":"Ward","year":"2003","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1592","DOI":"10.1007\/s00125-004-1498-0","article-title":"Glutamine potently stimulates glucagon-like peptide-1 secretion from glutag cells","volume":"47","author":"Reimann","year":"2004","journal-title":"Diabetologia"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmet.2006.01.004","article-title":"The biology of incretin hormones","volume":"3","author":"Drucker","year":"2006","journal-title":"Cell Metab."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1409","DOI":"10.1152\/physrev.00034.2006","article-title":"The physiology of glucagon-like peptide 1","volume":"87","author":"Holst","year":"2007","journal-title":"Physiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2009-1503","article-title":"Endogenous glucagon-like peptide-1 slows gastric emptying in healthy subjects, attenuating postprandial glycemia","volume":"95","author":"Deane","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"650","DOI":"10.1038\/nature00887","article-title":"Gut hormone pyy(3-36) physiologically inhibits food intake","volume":"418","author":"Batterham","year":"2002","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"612","DOI":"10.1038\/ncpendmet0318","article-title":"The role of oxyntomodulin and peptide tyrosine-tyrosine (PYY) in appetite control","volume":"2","author":"Wynne","year":"2006","journal-title":"Nat. Clin. Pract. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"365","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2036.2006.03193.x","article-title":"Review article: Glucagon-like peptide 2\u2014Current applications and future directions","volume":"25","author":"Wallis","year":"2007","journal-title":"Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"636","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clnu.2009.05.002","article-title":"Gastric emptying of three liquid oral preoperative metabolic preconditioning regimens measured by magnetic resonance imaging in healthy adult volunteers: A randomised double-blind, crossover study","volume":"28","author":"Lobo","year":"2009","journal-title":"Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clnu.2010.09.008","article-title":"A randomized crossover study of the effects of glutamine and lipid on the gastric emptying time of a preoperative carbohydrate drink","volume":"30","author":"Awad","year":"2011","journal-title":"Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2262","DOI":"10.2337\/dc12-1663","article-title":"Effects of intraduodenal glutamine on incretin hormone and insulin release, the glycemic response to an intraduodenal glucose infusion, and antropyloroduodenal motility in health and type 2 diabetes","volume":"36","author":"Chang","year":"2013","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1464-5491.2002.00658.x","article-title":"Gastric emptying in diabetes: Clinical significance and treatment","volume":"19","author":"Horowitz","year":"2002","journal-title":"Diabet. Med."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7S","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02300360","article-title":"Role and integration of mechanisms controlling gastric emptying","volume":"39","author":"Horowitz","year":"1994","journal-title":"Dig. Dis. Sci."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1396","DOI":"10.2337\/dc12-1609","article-title":"Relationships between gastric emptying, postprandial glycemia, and incretin hormones","volume":"36","author":"Marathe","year":"2013","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"816","DOI":"10.1136\/gut.38.6.816","article-title":"Scintigraphic measurement of gastric emptying and ultrasonographic assessment of antral area: Relation to appetite","volume":"38","author":"Hveem","year":"1996","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1062","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2982.2006.00830.x","article-title":"Measurements of gastric emptying of low- and high-nutrient liquids using 3d ultrasonography and scintigraphy in healthy subjects","volume":"18","author":"Gentilcore","year":"2006","journal-title":"Neurogastroenterol. Motil."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"(2011, March 30). RANDOM.ORG. Available online: http:\/\/www.random.org\/."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1331","DOI":"10.1007\/s10620-005-9010-3","article-title":"Effects of posture on gastric emptying, transpyloric flow, and hunger after a glucose drink in healthy humans","volume":"51","author":"Jones","year":"2006","journal-title":"Dig. Dis. Sci."},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"(2018, April 04). Mercodia Insulin ELISA. Version 4.0 ed.; Vol. Article No 32-4143. Available online: https:\/\/www.mercodia.com\/assets\/upload\/files\/Product%20sheets\/10-1113-01_10%20Insulin%204_0.pdf."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e13122","DOI":"10.14814\/phy2.13122","article-title":"Relationships of the early insulin secretory response and oral disposition index with gastric emptying in subjects with normal glucose tolerance","volume":"5","author":"Marathe","year":"2017","journal-title":"Physiol. Rep."},{"key":"ref_37","first-page":"R813","article-title":"Dynamics of gastric emptying during and after stomach fill","volume":"263","author":"Kaplan","year":"1992","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_38","first-page":"G404","article-title":"Inhibition of gastric emptying by glucose depends on length of intestine exposed to nutrient","volume":"256","author":"Lin","year":"1989","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"481","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00400681","article-title":"The effect of short-term dietary supplementation with glucose on gastric emptying of glucose and fructose and oral glucose tolerance in normal subjects","volume":"39","author":"Horowitz","year":"1996","journal-title":"Diabetologia"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"76","DOI":"10.1016\/S0016-5085(83)80232-7","article-title":"Regulation of the gastric emptying of glucose","volume":"85","author":"Brener","year":"1983","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1263","DOI":"10.1097\/CCM.0b013e31820eb774","article-title":"The effect of L-alanyl-L-glutamine dipeptide supplemented total parenteral nutrition on infectious morbidity and insulin sensitivity in critically ill patients","volume":"39","author":"Grau","year":"2011","journal-title":"Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_42","first-page":"E981","article-title":"Glucagon-like peptide 1 inhibition of gastric emptying outweighs its insulinotropic effects in healthy humans","volume":"273","author":"Nauck","year":"1997","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"373","DOI":"10.1007\/s001250051165","article-title":"Is glucagon-like peptide 1 an incretin hormone?","volume":"42","author":"Nauck","year":"1999","journal-title":"Diabetologia"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2212","DOI":"10.2337\/diabetes.54.7.2212","article-title":"Erythromycin antagonizes the deceleration of gastric emptying by glucagon-like peptide 1 and unmasks its insulinotropic effect in healthy subjects","volume":"54","author":"Meier","year":"2005","journal-title":"Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"76","DOI":"10.1177\/014860710603000276","article-title":"Glutamine supplementation increases postprandial energy expenditure and fat oxidation in humans","volume":"30","author":"Iwashita","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Parenter. Enter. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"280","DOI":"10.1177\/0148607198022005280","article-title":"Parenteral glutamine infusion alters insulin-mediated glucose metabolism","volume":"22","author":"Borel","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Parenter. Enter. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"903","DOI":"10.1177\/193229680900300438","article-title":"Factors affecting blood glucose monitoring: Sources of errors in measurement","volume":"3","author":"Ginsberg","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Diabetes Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"275","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2982.2004.00497.x","article-title":"Assessment of gastric accommodation: Overview and evaluation of current methods","volume":"16","author":"Cremonini","year":"2004","journal-title":"Neurogastroenterol. Motil."}],"container-title":["Nutrients"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/10\/6\/739\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T15:07:43Z","timestamp":1760195263000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/10\/6\/739"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2018,6,7]]},"references-count":48,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,6]]}},"alternative-id":["nu10060739"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/nu10060739","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-6643"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-6643","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2018,6,7]]}}}