{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,3]],"date-time":"2026-06-03T11:53:13Z","timestamp":1780487593507,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":38,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2018,7,29]],"date-time":"2018-07-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1532822400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nutrients"],"abstract":"<jats:p>In people with type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM), obtaining good glycemic control is essential to reduce the risk of acute and chronic complications. Frequent glucose monitoring allows the adjustment of insulin therapy to improve metabolic control with near-normal blood glucose concentrations. The recent development of innovative technological devices for the management of T1DM provides new opportunities for patients and health care professionals to improve glycemic control and quality of life. Currently, in addition to traditional self-monitoring of blood glucose (SMBG) through a glucometer, there are new strategies to measure glucose levels, including the detection of interstitial glucose through Continuous Glucose Monitoring (iCGM) or Flash Glucose Monitoring (FGM). In this review, we analyze current evidence on the efficacy and safety of FGM, with a special focus on T1DM. FGM is an effective tool with great potential for the management of T1DM both in the pediatric and adult population that can help patients to improve metabolic control and quality of life. Although FGM might not be included in the development of an artificial pancreas and some models of iCGM are more accurate than FGM and preferable in some specific situations, FGM represents a cheaper and valid alternative for selected patients. In fact, FGM provides significantly more data than the intermittent results obtained by SMBG, which may not capture intervals of extreme variability or nocturnal events. With the help of a log related to insulin doses, meal intake, physical activity and stress factors, people can achieve the full benefits of FGM and work together with health care professionals to act upon the information provided by the sensor. The graphs and trends available with FGM better allow an understanding of how different factors (e.g., physical activity, diet) impact glycemic control, consequently motivating patients to take charge of their health.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/nu10080992","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,7,30]],"date-time":"2018-07-30T11:55:08Z","timestamp":1532951708000},"page":"992","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":53,"title":["Flash Glucose Monitoring: A Review of the Literature with a Special Focus on Type 1 Diabetes"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"10","author":[{"given":"Giulia","family":"Mancini","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Pediatric Clinic, Department of Surgical and Biomedical Sciences, Universit\u00e0 degli Studi di Perugia, 06132 Perugia, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Maria Giulia","family":"Berioli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pediatric Clinic, Department of Surgical and Biomedical Sciences, Universit\u00e0 degli Studi di Perugia, 06132 Perugia, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Elisa","family":"Santi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pediatric Clinic, Department of Surgical and Biomedical Sciences, Universit\u00e0 degli Studi di Perugia, 06132 Perugia, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Francesco","family":"Rogari","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pediatric Clinic, Department of Surgical and Biomedical Sciences, Universit\u00e0 degli Studi di Perugia, 06132 Perugia, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Giada","family":"Toni","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pediatric Clinic, Department of Surgical and Biomedical Sciences, Universit\u00e0 degli Studi di Perugia, 06132 Perugia, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Giorgia","family":"Tascini","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pediatric Clinic, Department of Surgical and Biomedical Sciences, Universit\u00e0 degli Studi di Perugia, 06132 Perugia, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Roberta","family":"Crispoldi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pediatric Clinic, Department of Surgical and Biomedical Sciences, Universit\u00e0 degli Studi di Perugia, 06132 Perugia, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Giulia","family":"Ceccarini","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pediatric Clinic, Department of Surgical and Biomedical Sciences, Universit\u00e0 degli Studi di Perugia, 06132 Perugia, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4103-2837","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Susanna","family":"Esposito","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pediatric Clinic, Department of Surgical and Biomedical Sciences, Universit\u00e0 degli Studi di Perugia, 06132 Perugia, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,7,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"DCCT (1993). The effect of intensive treatment of diabetes on the development and progression of long-term complications in insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. N. Engl. J. Med., 329, 977\u2013986.","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM199309303291401"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"258","DOI":"10.2337\/diacare.18.2.258","article-title":"Hyperglycemia and microvascular and macrovascular disease in diabetes","volume":"18","author":"Klein","year":"1995","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S44","DOI":"10.1089\/dia.2017.0025","article-title":"Factory-calibrated continuous glucose sensors: The science behind the technology","volume":"19","author":"Hoss","year":"2017","journal-title":"Diabetes Technol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"U.S. Food and Drug Administration (2018, July 01). Dexcom G5 Mobile Continuous Glucose Monitoring System\u2014P120005\/S041, FDA News Release, Available online: https:\/\/www.accessdata.fda.gov\/scripts\/cdrh\/cfdocs\/cfpma\/pma.cfm?id=P120005S041."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"947","DOI":"10.1177\/1932296815603528","article-title":"CGM versus FGM; or, continuous glucose monitoring is not flash glucose monitoring","volume":"9","author":"Heinemann","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Diabetes Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"442","DOI":"10.1177\/1932296816661560","article-title":"Flash Glucose Monitoring improves outcomes in a type 1 diabetes clinic","volume":"11","author":"Dover","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Diabetes Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e000320","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjdrc-2016-000320","article-title":"Performance of the FreeStyle Libre Flash glucose monitoring system in patients with type 1 and 2 diabetes mellitus","volume":"5","author":"Fokkert","year":"2017","journal-title":"BMJ Open Diabetes Res. Care"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S16","DOI":"10.1089\/dia.2017.0029","article-title":"Metrics beyond hemoglobin A1C in diabetes management: Time in range, hypoglycemia, and other parameters","volume":"19","author":"Wright","year":"2017","journal-title":"Diabetes Technol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"290","DOI":"10.1177\/1932296816662884","article-title":"A multicenter evaluation of the performance and usability of a novel glucose monitoring system in Chinese adults with diabetes","volume":"11","author":"Ji","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Diabetes Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"164","DOI":"10.1089\/dia.2016.0392","article-title":"A clinical trial of the accuracy and treatment experience of the flash glucose monitor FreeStyle Libre in adults with type 1 diabetes","volume":"19","author":"Attvall","year":"2017","journal-title":"Diabetes Technol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"643","DOI":"10.4103\/2230-8210.190546","article-title":"Evaluation of accuracy of ambulatory glucose profile in an outpatient setting in children with type 1 diabetes","volume":"20","author":"Hulse","year":"2016","journal-title":"Indian J. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Edge, J., Acerini, C., Campbell, F., Hamilton-Shield, J., Moudiotis, C., Rahman, S., Randell, T., Smith, A., and Trevelyan, N. (2017). An alternative sensor-based method for glucose monitoring in children and young people with diabetes. Arch. Dis. Child.","DOI":"10.1136\/archdischild-2016-311530"},{"key":"ref_13","first-page":"167","article-title":"The performance of flash glucose monitoring in critically ill patients with diabetes","volume":"19","author":"Ancona","year":"2017","journal-title":"Crit. Care Resusc."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"787","DOI":"10.1089\/dia.2014.0378","article-title":"The Performance and Usability of a Factory-Calibrated Flash Glucose Monitoring System","volume":"17","author":"Bailey","year":"2015","journal-title":"Diabetes Technol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1391","DOI":"10.1007\/s40618-016-0495-8","article-title":"Head-to-head comparison between flash and continuous glucose monitoring systems in outpatients with type 1 diabetes","volume":"39","author":"Bonora","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Endocrinol. Investig."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1089\/dia.2017.0287","article-title":"Flash glucose measurements in children with type 1 diabetes in real-life settings: To trust or not to trust?","volume":"20","author":"Szadkowska","year":"2018","journal-title":"Diabetes Technol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"180","DOI":"10.1016\/j.numecd.2017.10.023","article-title":"FreeStyle Libre and Dexcom G4 Platinum sensors: Accuracy comparisons during two weeks of home use and use during experimentally induced glucose excursions","volume":"28","author":"Boscari","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nutr. Metab. Cardiovasc. Dis."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"827","DOI":"10.1507\/endocrj.EJ17-0193","article-title":"Careful readings for a flash glucose monitoring system in nondiabetic Japanese subjects: Individual differences and discrepancy in glucose concentrarion after glucose loading (Rapid Communication)","volume":"64","author":"Sekido","year":"2017","journal-title":"Endocr. J."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1159\/000487361","article-title":"Evaluation of the FreeStyle\u00ae Libre Flash Glucose System in children and adolescents with type 1 diabetes","volume":"89","author":"Massa","year":"2018","journal-title":"Horm. Res. Paediatr."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108","DOI":"10.1177\/1932296816651632","article-title":"Accuracy of 2 different continuous glucose monitoring systems in patients undergoing cardiac surgery: Intravascular microdialysis versus subcutaneous tissue mMonitoring","volume":"11","author":"Schierenbeck","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Diabetes Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"334","DOI":"10.1089\/dia.2016.0008","article-title":"Comment on \u2018The Performance and Usability of a Factory-Calibrated Flash Glucose Monitoring System\u2019","volume":"18","author":"Freckmann","year":"2016","journal-title":"Diabetes Technol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1051","DOI":"10.1111\/dom.12907","article-title":"Evaluation of subcutaneous glucose monitoring systems under routine environmental conditions in patients with type 1 diabetes","volume":"19","author":"Aberer","year":"2017","journal-title":"Diabetes Obes. Metab."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"790","DOI":"10.4103\/2230-8210.192894","article-title":"Feasibility and acceptability of ambulatory glucose profile in children with Type 1 diabetes mellitus: A pilot study","volume":"20","author":"Rai","year":"2016","journal-title":"Indian J. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2254","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(16)31535-5","article-title":"Novel glucose-sensing technology and hypoglycaemia in type 1 diabetes: A multicentre, non-masked, randomised controlled trial","volume":"388","author":"Bolinder","year":"2016","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"573","DOI":"10.1007\/s13300-017-0255-6","article-title":"Use of flash glucose-sensing technology for 12 months as a replacement for blood glucose monitoring in insulin-treated type 2 diabetes","volume":"8","author":"Haak","year":"2017","journal-title":"Diabetes Ther."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1007\/s13300-016-0223-6","article-title":"Flash glucose-sensing technology as a replacement for blood glucose monitoring for the management of insulin-treated type 2 diabetes: A multicenter, open-label randomized controlled trial","volume":"8","author":"Haak","year":"2017","journal-title":"Diabetes Ther."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1412","DOI":"10.1177\/1932296816653412","article-title":"Improvement in glucose control in difficult-to-control patients with diabetes using a novel flash glucose monitoring device","volume":"10","author":"Wainstein","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Diabetes Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"533","DOI":"10.1089\/dia.2017.0063","article-title":"A multicenter real-life study on the effect of flash glucose monitoring on glycemic control in patients with type 1 and type 2 diabetes","volume":"19","author":"Anjana","year":"2017","journal-title":"Diabetes Technol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1294","DOI":"10.1177\/1932296816648165","article-title":"First clinical experience with retrospective flash glucose monitoring (FGM) analysis in South Africa: Characterizing glycemic control with ambulatory glucose profile","volume":"10","author":"Distiller","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Diabetes Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"262","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-8749.2003.tb00341.x","article-title":"Neurocognitive functioning in children with type-1 diabetes with and without episodes of severe hypoglycaemia","volume":"45","author":"Hannonen","year":"2003","journal-title":"Dev. Med. Child. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1383","DOI":"10.1177\/0883073811406730","article-title":"The effect of recurrent severe hypoglycemia on cognitive performance in children with type 1 diabetes. A meta-analysis","volume":"26","author":"Blasetti","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Child Neurol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1210\/er.2009-0021","article-title":"Glucose variability; does it matter?","volume":"31","author":"Siegelaar","year":"2010","journal-title":"Endocr. Rev."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"868","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1464-5491.2010.02929.x","article-title":"Glucose variability and diabetes complication risk: We need to know the answer","volume":"27","author":"Kilpatrick","year":"2010","journal-title":"Diabet. Med."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"222","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.107.2.222","article-title":"Continuous subcutaneous glucose monitoring in children with type 1 diabetes","volume":"107","author":"Chase","year":"2001","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S150","DOI":"10.2337\/dc08-s241","article-title":"Glycemic variability: Should we and can we prevent it?","volume":"31","author":"Monnier","year":"2008","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1089\/dia.2017.0415","article-title":"Flash glucose monitoring in younger individuals with diabetes: Accuracy and patient experience in real-world settings","volume":"20","author":"Pearson","year":"2018","journal-title":"Diabetes Technol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1089\/dia.2014.0272","article-title":"Assessing sensor accuracy for non-adjunct use of continuous glucose monitoring","volume":"17","author":"Kovatchev","year":"2015","journal-title":"Diabetes Technol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_38","first-page":"1360","article-title":"Ambulatory glucose profile: Flash glucose monitoring","volume":"65","author":"Kalra","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Pak. Med. Assoc."}],"container-title":["Nutrients"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/10\/8\/992\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T15:15:07Z","timestamp":1760195707000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/10\/8\/992"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2018,7,29]]},"references-count":38,"journal-issue":{"issue":"8","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,8]]}},"alternative-id":["nu10080992"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/nu10080992","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-6643"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-6643","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2018,7,29]]}}}