{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,30]],"date-time":"2026-09-30T17:37:17Z","timestamp":1790789837023,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":158,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2018,11,5]],"date-time":"2018-11-05T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1541376000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nutrients"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is a complex multifactorial disease and the primary cause of legal and irreversible blindness among individuals aged \u226565 years in developed countries. Globally, it affects 30\u201350 million individuals, with an estimated increase of approximately 200 million by 2020 and approximately 300 million by 2040. Currently, the neovascular form may be able to be treated with the use of anti-VEGF drugs, while no effective treatments are available for the dry form. Many studies, such as the randomized controlled trials (RCTs) Age-Related Eye Disease Study (AREDS) and AREDS 2, have shown a potential role of micronutrient supplementation in lowering the risk of progression of the early stages of AMD. Recently, low-grade inflammation, sustained by dysbiosis and a leaky gut, has been shown to contribute to the development of AMD. Given the ascertained influence of the gut microbiota in systemic low-grade inflammation and its potential modulation by macro- and micro-nutrients, a potential role of diet in AMD has been proposed. This review discusses the role of the gut microbiota in the development of AMD. Using PubMed, Web of Science and Scopus, we searched for recent scientific evidence discussing the impact of dietary habits (high-fat and high-glucose or -fructose diets), micronutrients (vitamins C, E, and D, zinc, beta-carotene, lutein and zeaxanthin) and omega-3 fatty acids on the modulation of the gut microbiota and their relationship with AMD risk and progression.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/nu10111677","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,11,5]],"date-time":"2018-11-05T10:43:45Z","timestamp":1541414625000},"page":"1677","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":123,"title":["The Role of Diet, Micronutrients and the Gut Microbiota in Age-Related Macular Degeneration: New Perspectives from the Gut\u2013Retina Axis"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"10","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9165-2367","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Emanuele","family":"Rinninella","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"UOC di Nutrizione Clinica, Dipartimento di Scienze Gastroenterologiche, Endocrino-Metaboliche e Nefro-Urologiche, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario A. Gemelli IRCCS, Largo A. Gemelli 8, 00168 Rome, Italy"},{"name":"Istituto di Patologia Speciale Medica, Universit\u00e0 Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Largo F. Vito 1, 00168 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Maria Cristina","family":"Mele","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"UOC di Nutrizione Clinica, Dipartimento di Scienze Gastroenterologiche, Endocrino-Metaboliche e Nefro-Urologiche, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario A. Gemelli IRCCS, Largo A. Gemelli 8, 00168 Rome, Italy"},{"name":"Istituto di Patologia Speciale Medica, Universit\u00e0 Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Largo F. Vito 1, 00168 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5044-1398","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nicol\u00f2","family":"Merendino","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratorio di Nutrizione Cellulare e Molecolare, Dipartimento di Scienze Ecologiche e Biologiche (DEB), Universit\u00e0 della Tuscia, Largo dell\u2019Universit\u00e0 snc, 01100 Viterbo, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9610-0748","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marco","family":"Cintoni","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Scuola di Specializzazione in Scienza dell\u2019Alimentazione, Universit\u00e0 di Roma Tor Vergata, Via Montpellier 1, 00133 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Gaia","family":"Anselmi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"UOC di Nutrizione Clinica, Dipartimento di Scienze Gastroenterologiche, Endocrino-Metaboliche e Nefro-Urologiche, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario A. Gemelli IRCCS, Largo A. Gemelli 8, 00168 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Aldo","family":"Caporossi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"UOC di Oculistica, Dipartimento di Scienze dell\u2019Invecchiamento, Neurologiche, Ortopediche e della Testa-Collo, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario A. Gemelli IRCCS, Largo A. Gemelli 8, 00168 Rome, Italy"},{"name":"Istituto di Oftalmologia, Universit\u00e0 Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Largo F. Vito 1, 00168 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Antonio","family":"Gasbarrini","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"UOC di Nutrizione Clinica, Dipartimento di Scienze Gastroenterologiche, Endocrino-Metaboliche e Nefro-Urologiche, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario A. Gemelli IRCCS, Largo A. Gemelli 8, 00168 Rome, Italy"},{"name":"Istituto di Patologia Speciale Medica, Universit\u00e0 Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Largo F. Vito 1, 00168 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5896-5313","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Angelo Maria","family":"Minnella","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"UOC di Oculistica, Dipartimento di Scienze dell\u2019Invecchiamento, Neurologiche, Ortopediche e della Testa-Collo, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario A. Gemelli IRCCS, Largo A. Gemelli 8, 00168 Rome, Italy"},{"name":"Istituto di Oftalmologia, Universit\u00e0 Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Largo F. Vito 1, 00168 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,11,5]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e106","DOI":"10.1016\/S2214-109X(13)70145-1","article-title":"Global prevalence of age-related macular degeneration and disease burden projection for 2020 and 2040: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"2","author":"Wong","year":"2014","journal-title":"Lancet Glob. Health."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"564","DOI":"10.1001\/archopht.122.4.564","article-title":"Prevalence of age-related macular degeneration in the United States","volume":"122","author":"Friedman","year":"2004","journal-title":"Arch. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"184","DOI":"10.1080\/09286580701344381","article-title":"Overview of progress in the epidemiology of age-related macular degeneration","volume":"14","author":"Klein","year":"2007","journal-title":"Ophthalmic Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"(2018, June 18). The Global Economic Cost of Visual Impairment, March 2010. Available online: http:\/\/www.icoph.org\/dynamic\/attachments\/resources\/globalcostofvi_finalreport.pdf."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2606","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMra0801537","article-title":"Age-related macular degeneration","volume":"358","year":"2008","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Evans, J.R., and Lawrenson, J.G. (2012). Antioxidant vitamin and mineral supplements for slowing the progression of age-related macular degeneration. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev.","DOI":"10.1002\/14651858.CD000254.pub3"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Carneiro, \u00c2., and Andrade, J.P. (2017). Nutritional and Lifestyle Interventions for Age-Related Macular Degeneration: A Review. Oxid. Med. Cell Longev.","DOI":"10.1155\/2017\/6469138"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"523","DOI":"10.1016\/j.preteyeres.2004.05.001","article-title":"Do blue light filters confer protection against age-related macular degeneration?","volume":"23","author":"Margrain","year":"2004","journal-title":"Prog. Retin. Eye Res."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1276","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.15-18637","article-title":"Overweight, obesity, and risk of age-related macular degeneration","volume":"57","author":"Zhang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Investig. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Peeters, A., Magliano, D.J., Stevens, J., Duncan, B.B., Klein, R., and Wong, T.Y. (2008). Changes in abdominal obesity and age-related macular degeneration: The Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities Study. Arch. Ophthalmol.","DOI":"10.1001\/archopht.126.11.1554"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1016\/j.preteyeres.2010.09.001","article-title":"Dietary hyperglycemia, glycemic index and metabolic retinal diseases","volume":"30","author":"Chiu","year":"2011","journal-title":"Prog. Retin. Eye Res."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lau, K., Srivatsav, V., Rizwan, A., Nashed, A., Liu, R., Shen, R., and Akhtar, M. (2017). Bridging the gap between gut microbial dysbiosis and cardiovascular diseases. Nutrients, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu9080859"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ma, J., Zhou, Q., and Li, H. (2017). Gut microbiota and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease: insights on mechanisms and therapy. Nutrients, 9.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints201709.0040.v1"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ponziani, F.R., Bhoori, S., Castelli, C., Putignani, L., Rivoltini, L., Del Chierico, F., Sanguinetti, M., Morelli, D., Paroni Sterbini, F., and Petito, V. (2018). Hepatocellular carcinoma is associated with gut microbiota profile and inflammation in nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. Hepatology.","DOI":"10.1002\/hep.30036"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1027","DOI":"10.1038\/nature05414","article-title":"An obesity-associated gut microbiome with increased capacity for energy harvest","volume":"444","author":"Turnbaugh","year":"2006","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1366","DOI":"10.15252\/emmm.201606531","article-title":"Gut microbiota influences pathological angiogenesis in obesity-driven choroidal neovascularization","volume":"8","author":"Andriessen","year":"2016","journal-title":"EMBO Mol. Med."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ticinesi, A., Lauretani, F., Milani, C., Nouvenne, A., Tana, C., Del Rio, D., Maggio, M., Ventura, M., and Meschi, T. (2017). Aging gut microbiota at the cross-road between nutrition, physical frailty, and sarcopenia: is there a gut-muscle axis?. Nutrients, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu9121303"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"337","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2016.01.013","article-title":"Are we really vastly outnumbered? Revisiting the ratio of bacterial to host cells in humans","volume":"164","author":"Sender","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2016025","DOI":"10.4084\/mjhid.2016.025","article-title":"The gut microbiota and immune system relationship in human graft-versus-host disease","volume":"8","author":"Laterza","year":"2016","journal-title":"Mediterr. J. Hematol. Infect Dis."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1635","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1110591","article-title":"Diversity of the human intestinal microbial flora","volume":"308","author":"Eckburg","year":"2005","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11070","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0504978102","article-title":"Obesity alters gut microbial ecology","volume":"102","author":"Ley","year":"2005","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"186","DOI":"10.4161\/gmic.20168","article-title":"The gut microbiota and its relationship to diet and obesity: New insights","volume":"3","author":"Clarke","year":"2012","journal-title":"Gut Microbes"},{"key":"ref_23","first-page":"4948","article-title":"Germ-free C57BL\/6J mice are resistant to high-fat-diet-induced insulin resistance and have altered cholesterol metabolism","volume":"24","author":"Rabot","year":"2010","journal-title":"FASEB J."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1728","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(12)60282-7","article-title":"Age-related macular degeneration","volume":"379","author":"Lim","year":"2012","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajo.2014.04.016","article-title":"The relationship of major American dietary patterns to age-related macular degeneration","volume":"158","author":"Chiu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Am. J. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1246","DOI":"10.1093\/aje\/kwr005","article-title":"Abdominal obesity and age-related macular degeneration","volume":"173","author":"Adams","year":"2011","journal-title":"Am. J. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"52","DOI":"10.3109\/10408363.2015.1084990","article-title":"Sugar consumption, metabolic disease and obesity: The state of the controversy","volume":"53","author":"Stanhope","year":"2016","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Clin. Lab. Sci."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Williams, L.M., Campbell, F.M., Drew, J.E., Koch, C., Hoggard, N., Rees, W.D., Kamolrat, T., Ngo, H.T., Steffensen, I.-L., and Gray, S.R. (2014). The development of diet-induced obesity and glucose intolerance in c57bl\/6 mice on a high-fat diet consists of distinct phases. PLoS ONE, 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0106159"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"337","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nutres.2015.12.001","article-title":"Lactobacillus sakei ok67 ameliorates high-fat diet\u2013induced blood glucose intolerance and obesity in mice by inhibiting gut microbiota lipopolysaccharide production and inducing colon tight junction protein expression","volume":"36","author":"Lim","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nutr. Res."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2405","DOI":"10.3390\/nu5072405","article-title":"Diminishing risk for age-related macular degeneration with nutrition: A current view","volume":"5","author":"Schleicher","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nutrients"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Do, M.H., Lee, E., Oh, M.J., Kim, Y., and Park, H.Y. (2018). High-Glucose or -Fructose Diet Cause Changes of the Gut Microbiota and Metabolic Disorders in Mice without Body Weight Change. Nutrients, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu10060761"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rizzatti, G., Lopetuso, L.R., Gibino, G., Binda, C., and Gasbarrini, A. (2017). Proteobacteria: A common factor in human diseases. Biomed. Res. Int.","DOI":"10.1155\/2017\/9351507"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E4472","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1702302114","article-title":"Involvement of a gut-retina axis in protection against dietary glycemia-induced age-related macular degeneration","volume":"114","author":"Rowan","year":"2017","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1111\/aos.12650","article-title":"Nutritional supplements in age-related macular degeneration","volume":"93","author":"Schmidl","year":"2015","journal-title":"Acta Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Age-Related Eye Disease Study Research Group (2001). A randomized, placebo-controlled, clinical trial of high-dose supplementation with vitamins C and E, beta carotene, and zinc for age-related macular degeneration and vision loss. Arch. Ophthalmol., 119, 1417\u20131436.","DOI":"10.1001\/archopht.119.10.1417"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2005","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2013.4997","article-title":"Lutein + zeaxanthin and omega-3 fatty acids for age-related macular degeneration: The Age-Related Eye Disease Study 2 (AREDS2) randomized clinical trial","volume":"309","author":"Chew","year":"2013","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Age-Related Eye Disease Study 2 (AREDS2) Research Group (2014). Secondary analyses of the effects of lutein\/zeaxanthin on age-related macular degeneration progression: AREDS2 report No. 3. JAMA Ophthalmol., 132, 142\u2013149.","DOI":"10.1001\/jamaophthalmol.2013.7376"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1413","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.1994.03520180037032","article-title":"Dietary carotenoids, vitamins A, C, and E, and advanced age-related macular degeneration","volume":"272","author":"Seddon","year":"1994","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"216","DOI":"10.1016\/S1529-1839(04)70049-4","article-title":"Double-masked, placebo-controlled, randomized trial of lutein and antioxidant supplementation in the intervention of atrophic age-related macular degeneration: The veterans LAST study (Lutein Antioxidant Supplementation Trial)","volume":"75","author":"Richer","year":"2004","journal-title":"Optometry"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2329","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.05-1235","article-title":"Plasma Lutein and Zeaxanthin and Other Carotenoids as Modifiable Risk Factors for Age-Related Maculopathy and Cataract: The POLA Study","volume":"47","author":"Delcourt","year":"2006","journal-title":"Investig. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"995","DOI":"10.1001\/archopht.124.7.995","article-title":"Cigarette, smoking, fish consumption, omega 3 fatty acid intake and association with age-related macular degeneration: The US Twin Study of age-related macular degeneration","volume":"124","author":"Seddon","year":"2006","journal-title":"Arch. Ophthlmol."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"981","DOI":"10.1001\/archopht.124.7.981","article-title":"Dietary fatty acids and the 5-year incidence of age-related maculopathy","volume":"124","author":"Chua","year":"2006","journal-title":"Arch. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"671","DOI":"10.1001\/archopht.125.5.671","article-title":"The relationship of dietary lipid intake and age-related macular degeneration in a case-control study: AREDS Report No. 20","volume":"125","author":"SanGiovanni","year":"2007","journal-title":"Arch. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Age-Related Eye Disease Study Research Group (2007). The relationship of dietary carotenoid and vitamin A, E, and C intake with age-related macular degeneration in a case-control study: AREDS Report No. 22. Arch. Ophthalmol., 125, 1225\u20131232.","DOI":"10.1001\/archopht.125.9.1225"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1274","DOI":"10.1001\/archopht.126.9.1274","article-title":"The relationship of dietary omega-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid intake with incident age-related macular degeneration: AREDS report No. 23","volume":"126","author":"SanGiovanni","year":"2008","journal-title":"Arch. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"82","DOI":"10.1097\/OPX.0b013e318162266e","article-title":"Macular pigment and visual performance under glare conditions","volume":"85","author":"Stringham","year":"2008","journal-title":"Optom. Vis. Sci."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1837","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/87.6.1837","article-title":"Prospective study of lutein\/zeaxanthin intake and risk of age-related macular degeneration","volume":"87","author":"Cho","year":"2008","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"334","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ophtha.2007.03.083","article-title":"Dietary antioxidants and the long-term incidence of age-related macular degeneration: The Blue Mountains eye study","volume":"115","author":"Tan","year":"2008","journal-title":"Ophthalmology"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"591","DOI":"10.1080\/02713680802178437","article-title":"A randomized, prospective, placebo-controlled clinical trial of a novel zinc-monocysteine compound in age-related macular degeneration","volume":"33","author":"Newsome","year":"2008","journal-title":"Curr. Eye Res."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110","DOI":"10.1001\/archophthalmol.2008.518","article-title":"Omega-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid intake inversely associated with 12-year progression to advanced age-related macular degeneration","volume":"127","author":"SanGiovanni","year":"2009","journal-title":"Arch. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"758","DOI":"10.1001\/archophthalmol.2011.141","article-title":"Reducing the genetic risk of age-related macular degeneration with dietary antioxidants, zinc, and omega-3 fatty acids: The Rotterdam study","volume":"129","author":"Ho","year":"2011","journal-title":"Arch. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"368","DOI":"10.1034\/j.1600-0420.2002.800404.x","article-title":"Neovascular age-related macular degeneration and its relationship to antioxidant intake","volume":"80","author":"Snellen","year":"2002","journal-title":"Acta Ophthalmol. Scand."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1016\/j.exer.2012.05.006","article-title":"Macular carotenoid supplementation in subjects with atypical spatial profiles of macular pigment","volume":"101","author":"Nolan","year":"2012","journal-title":"Exp. Eye Res."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1619","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ophtha.2013.01.005","article-title":"Nutritional AMD Treatment 2 Study Group. Oral docosahexaenoic acid in the prevention of exudative age-related macular degeneration: The Nutritional AMD Treatment 2 study","volume":"120","author":"Souied","year":"2013","journal-title":"Ophthalmology"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8583","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.14-15573","article-title":"A double-blind, placebo- controlled study on the effects of lutein and zeaxanthin on photostress recovery, glare disability, and chromatic contrast","volume":"55","author":"Hammond","year":"2014","journal-title":"Investig. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20723","DOI":"10.1038\/srep20723","article-title":"Dietary n-3 Fatty Acid, \u03b1-Tocopherol, Zinc, vitamin D, vitamin C, and \u03b2-carotene are Associated with Age-Related Macular Degeneration in Japan","volume":"6","author":"Aoki","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Braakhuis, A., Raman, R., and Vaghefi, E. (2017). The Association between Dietary Intake of Antioxidants and Ocular Disease. Diseases, 5.","DOI":"10.3390\/diseases5010003"},{"key":"ref_58","first-page":"4288","article-title":"Nutritional support in mitochondrial diseases: The state of the art","volume":"22","author":"Rinninella","year":"2018","journal-title":"Eur. Rev. Med. Pharmacol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2012.06.018","article-title":"Mechanisms of age-related macular degeneration","volume":"75","author":"Ambati","year":"2012","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1712","DOI":"10.3748\/wjg.v20.i7.1712","article-title":"Clinical approaches to non-alcoholic fatty liver disease","volume":"20","author":"Schwenger","year":"2014","journal-title":"World J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.nutr.24.012003.132446","article-title":"Vitamin E, oxidative stress, and inflammation","volume":"25","author":"Singh","year":"2005","journal-title":"Annu Rev. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1007\/s00228-009-0729-1","article-title":"Dosage and formulation issues: Oral vitamin E therapy in children","volume":"66","author":"Westergren","year":"2010","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"G340","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpgi.00369.2016","article-title":"Molecular mechanism(s) involved in differential expression of vitamin C transporters along the intestinal tract","volume":"312","author":"Subramanian","year":"2017","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Gastrointest. Liver Physiol."},{"key":"ref_64","first-page":"1589","article-title":"Amelioration of photic injury in rat retina by ascorbic acid: A histopathologic study","volume":"26","author":"Li","year":"1985","journal-title":"Investig. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"204","DOI":"10.1093\/oxfordjournals.aje.a009625","article-title":"Associations between antioxidant and zinc intake and the 5-years incidence of early age-related maculopathy in the Beaver Dam Eye Study","volume":"148","author":"VandenLangerberg","year":"1998","journal-title":"Am. J. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1689","DOI":"10.1007\/s00253-012-4323-6","article-title":"Alterations of the gut microbiota in high-fat diet mice is strongly linked to oxidative stress","volume":"97","author":"Qiao","year":"2013","journal-title":"Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1002\/path.1407","article-title":"Differential mucosal expression of three superoxide dismutase isoforms in inflammatory bowel disease","volume":"201","author":"Kruidenier","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1007\/s00281-014-0454-4","article-title":"The gut microbiota and inflammatory bowel disease","volume":"37","author":"Matsuoka","year":"2015","journal-title":"Semin. Immunopathol."},{"key":"ref_69","first-page":"1219","article-title":"Recent advances in characterizing the gastrointestinal microbiome in Crohn\u2019s disease: A systematic review","volume":"21","author":"Wright","year":"2015","journal-title":"Inflamm. Bowel Dis."},{"key":"ref_70","first-page":"20245","article-title":"Ascorbic acid ameliorates oxidative stress and inflammation in dextran sulfate sodium-induced ulcerative colitis in mice","volume":"8","author":"Yan","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Clin. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"333","DOI":"10.1503\/cjs.013610","article-title":"Vitamin E has a dual effect of anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities in acetic acid-induced ulcerative colitis in rats","volume":"54","author":"Tahan","year":"2011","journal-title":"Can. J. Surg."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S29","DOI":"10.1017\/S0007114507832971","article-title":"Selected vitamins and trace elements support immune function by strengthening epithelial barriers and cellular and humoral immune responses","volume":"98","author":"Maggini","year":"2007","journal-title":"Br. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"95","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jnutbio.2017.12.002","article-title":"Dietary antioxidant micronutrients alter mucosal inflammatory risk in a murine model of genetic and microbial susceptibility","volume":"54","author":"Pierre","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Nutr. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1186\/s40168-016-0200-3","article-title":"Fat and vitamin intakes during pregnancy have stronger relations with a pro-inflammatory maternal microbiota than does carbohydrate intake","volume":"4","author":"Mandal","year":"2016","journal-title":"Microbiome"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1097","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clnu.2016.06.029","article-title":"Associations between micronutrient intakes and gut microbiota in a group of adults with cystic fibrosis","volume":"36","author":"Li","year":"2017","journal-title":"Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"379","DOI":"10.1097\/MPG.0000000000001154","article-title":"Effect of vitamin E with therapeutic iron supplementation on iron repletion and gut microbiome in US iron deficient infants and toddlers","volume":"63","author":"Tang","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Pediatr. Gastroenterol. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"584","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nut.2013.10.018","article-title":"Regulation of an antioxidant blend on intestinal redox status and major microbiota in early weaned piglets","volume":"30","author":"Xu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nutrition"},{"key":"ref_78","unstructured":"Packer, L., and Colman, C. (1999). The Antioxidant Miracle, Wiley & Sons."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2449","DOI":"10.1002\/jsfa.8724","article-title":"Association between the gut microbiota and mineral metabolism","volume":"98","author":"Skrypnik","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Sci. Food Agric."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"403","DOI":"10.1080\/00071668.2014.919375","article-title":"Effects of zinc\u2013methionine on growth performance, intestinal flora and immune function in pigeon squabs","volume":"3","author":"Wang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Br. Poult. Sci."},{"key":"ref_81","first-page":"425","article-title":"The Effect of severe zinc deficiency on the morphology of the rat retinal pigment epithelium","volume":"23","author":"McClain","year":"1982","journal-title":"Investig. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Smailhodzic, D., van Asten, F., Blom, A.M., Mohlin, F.C., den Hollander, A.I., van de Ven, J.P., van Huet, R.A., Groenewoud, J.M., Tian, Y., and Berendschot, T.T. (2014). Zinc supplementation inhibits complement activation in age-related macular degeneration. PLoS ONE, 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0112682"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"95","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nutres.2013.10.011","article-title":"Review of nutrient actions on age-related macular degeneration","volume":"34","author":"Zampatti","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nutr. Res."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1041","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.11-8531","article-title":"Effects of antioxidant components of AREDS vitamins and zinc ions on endothelial cell activation: Implications for macular degeneration","volume":"53","author":"Zeng","year":"2012","journal-title":"Investig. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Organisciak, D., Wong, P., Rapp, C., Darrow, R., Ziesel, A., Rangarajan, R., and Lang, J. (2012). Light-induced retinal degeneration is prevented by zinc, a component in the agerelated eye disease study formulation. Photochem. Photobiol.","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1751-1097.2012.01134.x"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1525","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1025622425501","article-title":"Zinc and energy requirements in induction of oxidative stress to retinal pigmented epithelial cells","volume":"28","author":"Wood","year":"2003","journal-title":"Neurochem. Res."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gielda, L.M., and DiRita, V.J. (2012). Zinc competition among the intestinal microbiota. MBio.","DOI":"10.1128\/mBio.00171-12"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1330","DOI":"10.1038\/nm.4174","article-title":"Dietary Zinc Alters the Microbiota and Decreases Resistance to Clostridium difficile Infection","volume":"22","author":"Zackular","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9768","DOI":"10.3390\/nu7125497","article-title":"Chronic Zinc Deficiency Alters Chick Gut Microbiota Composition and Function","volume":"7","author":"Reed","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nutrients"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Watson, H., Mitra, S., Croden, F.C., Taylor, M., Wood, H.M., Perry, S.L., Spencer, J.A., Quirke, P., Toogood, G.J., and Lawton, C.L. (2017). A randomised trial of the effect of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid supplements on the human intestinal microbiota. Gut.","DOI":"10.1136\/gutjnl-2017-314968"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1311","DOI":"10.1093\/ps\/79.9.1311","article-title":"Effect of zinc bacitracin and salinomycin on intestinal microflora and performance of broilers","volume":"79","author":"Engberg","year":"2000","journal-title":"Poult. Sci."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"170","DOI":"10.1007\/s12011-010-8734-x","article-title":"Preparation of selenium\/zinc-enriched probiotics and their effect on blood selenium and zinc concentrations, antioxidant capacities, and intestinal microflora in canine","volume":"141","author":"Ren","year":"2011","journal-title":"Biol. Trace Elem. Res."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"192","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2018.08.022","article-title":"Bioactive compounds of beetroot and utilization in food processing industry: A critical review","volume":"272","author":"Chhikara","year":"2019","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.nutr.18.1.19","article-title":"Bioavailability and bioconversion of carotenoids","volume":"18","author":"Castenmiller","year":"1998","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"455","DOI":"10.1042\/BJ20040554","article-title":"Lutein transport by Caco-2 TC-7 cells occurs partly by a facilitated process involving the scavenger receptor class B type I (SR-BI)","volume":"387","author":"Reboul","year":"2005","journal-title":"Biochem. J."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4517","DOI":"10.1021\/bi0484320","article-title":"Class B scavenger receptor-mediated intestinal absorption of dietary beta-carotene and cholesterol","volume":"44","author":"Werder","year":"2005","journal-title":"Biochemistry"},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2305","DOI":"10.1093\/jn\/135.10.2305","article-title":"Carotenoid transport is decreased and expression of the lipid transporters SR-BI, NPC1L1, and ABCA1 is downregulated in Caco-2 cells treated with ezetimibe","volume":"135","author":"During","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1016\/j.exer.2017.02.016","article-title":"Retinal Accumulation of Zeaxanthin, Lutein, and \u03b2-Carotene in Mice Deficient in Carotenoid Cleavage Enzymes","volume":"159","author":"Binxing","year":"2017","journal-title":"Exp. Eye Res."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"513","DOI":"10.1016\/j.exer.2005.03.009","article-title":"Nutritional manipulation of primate retinas. IV Effects of n--3 fatty acids, lutein, and zeaxanthin on S-cones and rods in the foveal region","volume":"81","author":"Leung","year":"2005","journal-title":"Exp. Eye Res."},{"key":"ref_100","first-page":"1127","article-title":"The retinal carotenoids, zeaxanthin and lutein scavenge superoxide and hydroxyl radicals: A chemiluminescence and ESR study","volume":"12","author":"Foote","year":"2006","journal-title":"Mol. Vis."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"389","DOI":"10.1136\/bjo.2005.078055","article-title":"Does dietary lutein and zeaxanthin increase the risk of age related macular degeneration? The Melbourne Visual Impairment Project","volume":"90","author":"Vu","year":"2006","journal-title":"Br. J. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1006\/exer.1997.0309","article-title":"A one year study of the macular pigment: The effect of 140 days of a lutein supplement","volume":"65","author":"Landrum","year":"1997","journal-title":"Exp. Eye Res."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"876","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ophtha.2007.06.015","article-title":"Macular pigment density and age-related maculopathy in the Carotenoids in Age-Related Eye Disease Study. An ancillary study of the women\u2019s health initiative","volume":"115","author":"LaRowe","year":"2008","journal-title":"Ophthalmology"},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3429","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.16-19520","article-title":"Enrichment of Macular Pigment Enhances Contrast Sensitivity in Subjects Free of Retinal Disease: Central Retinal Enrichment Supplementation Trials-Report 1","volume":"57","author":"Nolan","year":"2016","journal-title":"Investig. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"ORSF42","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs13-12914","article-title":"Nutrition Effects on Ocular Diseases in the Aging Eye","volume":"54","author":"Chew","year":"2013","journal-title":"Investig. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1245","DOI":"10.1038\/ncomms2266","article-title":"Symptomatic atherosclerosis is associated with an altered gut metagenome","volume":"3","author":"Karlsson","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Arteni, A.A., Fradot, M., Galzerano, D., Mendes-Pinto, M.M., Sahel, J.A., Picaud, S., Robert, B., and Pascal, A.A. (2015). Structure and conformation of the carotenoids in human retinal macular pigment. PLoS ONE, 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0135779"},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"300","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1444-0938.2010.00499.x","article-title":"The role of macular pigment assessment in clinical practice: A review","volume":"93","author":"Bartlett","year":"2010","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Optom."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"899","DOI":"10.1038\/eye.2013.98","article-title":"What is meso-zeaxanthin, and where does it come from?","volume":"27","author":"Nolan","year":"2013","journal-title":"Eye"},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4189","DOI":"10.1021\/jf990096k","article-title":"Carotenoids composition of marigold (Tagetes erecta) flower extract used as nutritional supplement","volume":"47","author":"Hadden","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Agric. Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1016\/j.exer.2006.08.016","article-title":"Risk factors for age-related maculopathy are associated with a relative lack of macular pigment","volume":"84","author":"Nolan","year":"2007","journal-title":"Exp. Eye Res."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Eisenhauer, B., Natoli, S., Liew, G., and Flood, V.M. (2017). Lutein and Zeaxanthin food sources, bioavailability and dietary variety in age related macular degeneration protection. Nutrients, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu9020120"},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1002\/mnfr.200600145","article-title":"Intestinal absorption of dietary carotenoids","volume":"51","author":"Yonekura","year":"2007","journal-title":"Mol. Nutr. Food Res."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"667","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ophtha.2013.10.017","article-title":"Genetic susceptibility, dietary antioxidants, and long-term incidence of age-related macular degeneration in two populations","volume":"121","author":"Wang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Ophthalmology"},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"587","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.13-13216","article-title":"Genetic evidence for role of carotenoids in age-related macular degeneration in the Carotenoids in Age-related Eye Disease study (CAREDS)","volume":"55","author":"Meyers","year":"2014","journal-title":"Investig. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"716","DOI":"10.1016\/j.visres.2009.10.014","article-title":"The Value of Measurement of Macular Carotenoid Pigment Optical Densities and Distributions in Age-Related Macular Degeneration and Other Retinal Disorders","volume":"50","author":"Bernstein","year":"2010","journal-title":"Vis. Res."},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ma, L., Liu, R., Du, J.H., Liu, T., Wu, S.S., and Liu, X.H. (2016). Lutein, Zeaxanthin and Meso-zeaxanthin Supplementation Associated with Macular Pigment Optical Density. Nutrients., 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu8070426"},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1574-6968.1994.tb06813.x","article-title":"Enhancement of bifidobacteria from human gut contents by oligofructose using continuous culture","volume":"118","author":"Gibson","year":"1994","journal-title":"FEMS Microbiol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_119","first-page":"13","article-title":"Anti-carcinogenicity of probiotics and prebiotics","volume":"1","author":"Burns","year":"2000","journal-title":"Curr. Issues Intest. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"535","DOI":"10.1016\/S0958-6946(98)00074-0","article-title":"Stimulation of the immune system by lactic cultures","volume":"8","author":"Gill","year":"1998","journal-title":"Int. Dairy J."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"416","DOI":"10.1002\/ptr.5009","article-title":"Evaluation of the Effect of Blackcurrant Products on Gut Microbiota and on Markers of Risk for Colon Cancer in Humans","volume":"28","author":"Molan","year":"2014","journal-title":"Phytother. Res."},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S73","DOI":"10.1079\/BJN2002632","article-title":"Diet and cancer: Assessing the risk","volume":"88","author":"Gill","year":"2002","journal-title":"Br. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1149","DOI":"10.1093\/ibd\/izy092","article-title":"Ancient nuclear receptor vdr with new functions: Microbiome and inflammation","volume":"24","author":"Bakke","year":"2018","journal-title":"Inflamm. Bowel Dis."},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2517","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCULATIONAHA.113.002654","article-title":"Role of vitamin D in atherosclerosis","volume":"128","author":"Kassi","year":"2013","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"266","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMra070553","article-title":"Vitamin D deficiency","volume":"357","author":"Holick","year":"2007","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"319","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chembiol.2013.12.016","article-title":"Vitamin D metabolism, mechanism of action, and clinical applications","volume":"21","author":"Bikle","year":"2014","journal-title":"Chem. Biol."},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.3109\/02713689508999921","article-title":"Immuno-localization of the calcitriol receptor, calbindin-D28k and the plasma membrane calcium pump in the human eye","volume":"14","author":"Johnson","year":"1995","journal-title":"Curr. Eye Res."},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"538","DOI":"10.1186\/1479-7364-5-6-538","article-title":"Systems biology-based analysis implicates a novel role for vitamin D metabolism in the pathogenesis of age-related macular degeneration","volume":"5","author":"Morrison","year":"2011","journal-title":"Hum. Genom."},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1007\/s12177-008-9007-1","article-title":"Prediction of cis-regulatory elements controlling genes differentially expressed by retinal and choroidal vascular endothelial cells","volume":"1","author":"Choi","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Ocul. Biol. Dis. Inform."},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Layana, A.G., Minnella, A.M., Garh\u00f6fer, G., Aslam, T., Holz, F.G., Leys, A., Silva, R., Delcourt, C., Souied, E., and Seddon, J.M. (2017). Vitamin D and Age-Related Macular Degeneration. Nutrients, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu9101120"},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1007\/s13311-017-0581-4","article-title":"Diet, Gut Microbiota, and Vitamins D + A in Multiple Sclerosis","volume":"15","author":"Riccio","year":"2018","journal-title":"Neurotherapeutics"},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.1097\/MOG.0000000000000449","article-title":"Vitamin D in inflammatory bowel disease: More than just a supplement","volume":"34","author":"Gubatan","year":"2018","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"696","DOI":"10.1038\/ijo.2017.294","article-title":"Colonic Bacteroides are positively associated with trabecular bone structure and programmed by maternal vitamin D in male but not female offspring in an obesogenic environment","volume":"42","author":"Villa","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Obes."},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Talsness, C.E., Penders, J., Jansen, E.H.J.M., Damoiseaux, J., Thijs, C., and Mommers, M. (2017). Influence of vitamin D on key bacterial taxa in infant microbiota in the KOALA Birth Cohort Study. PLoS ONE, 12.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0188011"},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"76","DOI":"10.1016\/j.metabol.2017.01.007","article-title":"Gut microbiota interactions with the immunomodulatory role of vitamin D in normal individuals","volume":"69","author":"Luthold","year":"2017","journal-title":"Metabolism"},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1479","DOI":"10.1007\/s00394-015-0966-2","article-title":"Effects of high doses of vitamin D3 on mucosa-associated gut microbiome vary between regions of the human gastrointestinal tract","volume":"55","author":"Bashir","year":"2016","journal-title":"Eur. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"963","DOI":"10.1093\/ecco-jcc\/jjy052","article-title":"The effect of vitamin D on intestinal inflammation and faecal microbiota in patients with ulcerative colitis","volume":"12","author":"Garg","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Crohn\u2019s Colitis"},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.1111\/1751-2980.12591","article-title":"Vitamin D administration leads to a shift of the intestinal bacterial composition in Crohn\u2019s disease patients, but not in healthy controls","volume":"19","author":"Herlemann","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Dig. Dis."},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"564","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2017-01983","article-title":"Bolus Weekly Vitamin D3 Supplementation Impacts Gut and Airway Microbiota in Adults with Cystic Fibrosis: A Double-Blind, Randomized, Placebo-Controlled Clinical Trial","volume":"103","author":"Kanhere","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Clin. Endocrinol. MeTable"},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"865","DOI":"10.1080\/17512433.2017.1333902","article-title":"Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids for cardiovascular diseases: Present, past and future","volume":"10","author":"Watanabe","year":"2017","journal-title":"Expert Rev. Clin. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S171","DOI":"10.1017\/S0007114512001560","article-title":"Influence of marine n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on immune function and a systematic review of their effects on clinical outcomes in rheumatoid arthritis","volume":"107","author":"Miles","year":"2012","journal-title":"Br. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"506","DOI":"10.3109\/08830180903197480","article-title":"Fatty acids and immune function: Relevance to inflammatory bowel diseases","volume":"28","author":"Calder","year":"2009","journal-title":"Int. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_143","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1089\/cap.2016.0123","article-title":"Omega-3 fatty acids plasma levels before and after supplementation: Correlation with mood and clinical outcomes in the omega-3 and therapy studies","volume":"27","author":"Arnold","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Child Adolesc. Psychopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_144","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Merendino, N., Costantini, L., Manzi, L., Molinari, R., D\u2019Eliseo, D., and Velotti, F. (2013). Dietary omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid DHA: A potential adjuvant in the treatment of cancer. Biomed. Res. Int.","DOI":"10.1155\/2013\/310186"},{"key":"ref_145","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"244","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1749-6632.2000.tb06651.x","article-title":"Inflammaging: An evolutionary perspective on immunosenescence","volume":"908","author":"Franceschi","year":"2000","journal-title":"Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"ref_146","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mad.2006.11.016","article-title":"Inflammaging and anti-inflammaging: A systemic perspective on aging and longevity emerged from studies in humans","volume":"128","author":"Franceschi","year":"2007","journal-title":"Mech. Ageing Dev."},{"key":"ref_147","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.3945\/ajcn.117.153825","article-title":"\u03c9-3 and \u03c9-6 long-chain PUFAs and their enzymatic metabolites in neovascular eye diseases","volume":"106","author":"Gong","year":"2017","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_148","first-page":"CD010015","article-title":"Omega 3 fatty acids for preventing or slowing the progression of age-related macular degeneration","volume":"9","author":"Lawrenson","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cochrane Database Syst. Rev."},{"key":"ref_149","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1716","DOI":"10.1053\/j.gastro.2009.08.042","article-title":"High-fat diet determines the composition of the murine gut microbiome independently of obesity","volume":"137","author":"Hildebrandt","year":"2009","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_150","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"232","DOI":"10.1038\/ismej.2009.112","article-title":"Interaction between gut microbiota, host genetics and diet relevant to development of metabolic syndrome in mice","volume":"4","author":"Zhang","year":"2010","journal-title":"ISME J."},{"key":"ref_151","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104","DOI":"10.1038\/nature11225","article-title":"Dietary-fat-induced taurocholic acid promotes pathobiont expansion and colitis in Il10\u2212\/\u2212 mice","volume":"487","author":"Devkota","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_152","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"559","DOI":"10.1038\/nature12820","article-title":"Diet rapidly and reproducibly alters the human gut microbiome","volume":"505","author":"David","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_153","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Noriega, B.S., Sanchez-Gonzalez, M.A., Salyakina, D., and Coffman, J. (2016). Understanding the impact of omega-3 rich diet on the gut microbiota. Case Rep. Med.","DOI":"10.1155\/2016\/3089303"},{"key":"ref_154","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11079","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-017-10382-2","article-title":"Omega-3 fatty acids correlate with gut microbiome diversity and production of N-carbamylglutamate in middle aged and elderly women","volume":"7","author":"Menni","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_155","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1694","DOI":"10.3945\/jn.116.235358","article-title":"Gut Microbiota Richness and Composition and Dietary Intake of Overweight Pregnant Women Are Related to Serum Zonulin Concentration, a Marker for Intestinal Permeability","volume":"146","author":"Mokkala","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_156","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"95","DOI":"10.1186\/s40168-018-0476-6","article-title":"Maternal omega-3 fatty acids regulate offspring obesity through persistent modulation of gut microbiota","volume":"6","author":"Robertson","year":"2018","journal-title":"Microbiome"},{"key":"ref_157","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Costantini, L., Molinari, R., Farinon, B., and Merendino, N. (2017). Impact of Omega-3 Fatty Acids on the Gut Microbiota. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms18122645"},{"key":"ref_158","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1512","DOI":"10.2337\/db17-1488","article-title":"The transplantation of \u03c93 pufa-altered gut microbiota of fat-1 mice to wild-type littermates prevents obesity and associated metabolic disorders","volume":"67","author":"Bidu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Diabetes"}],"container-title":["Nutrients"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/10\/11\/1677\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T15:27:59Z","timestamp":1760196479000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/10\/11\/1677"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2018,11,5]]},"references-count":158,"journal-issue":{"issue":"11","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,11]]}},"alternative-id":["nu10111677"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/nu10111677","relation":{"has-preprint":[{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.20944\/preprints201810.0369.v1","asserted-by":"object"}]},"ISSN":["2072-6643"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-6643","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2018,11,5]]}}}