{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,28]],"date-time":"2026-04-28T05:42:43Z","timestamp":1777354963287,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":30,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,4,12]],"date-time":"2019-04-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1555027200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nutrients"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Improving the nutritional quality of Fe in maize (Zea mays) represents a biofortification strategy to alleviate iron deficiency anemia. Therefore, the present study measured iron content and bioavailability via an established bioassay to characterize Fe quality in parts of the maize kernel. Comparisons of six different varieties of maize demonstrated that the germ fraction is a strong inhibitory component of Fe bioavailability. The germ fraction can contain 27\u201354% of the total kernel Fe, which is poorly available. In the absence of the germ, Fe in the non-germ components can be highly bioavailable. More specifically, increasing Fe concentration in the non-germ fraction resulted in more bioavailable Fe. Comparison of wet-milled fractions of a commercial maize variety and degerminated corn meal products also demonstrated the inhibitory effect of the germ fraction on Fe bioavailability. When compared to beans (Phaseolus vulgaris) containing approximately five times the concentration of Fe, degerminated maize provided more absorbable Fe, indicating substantially higher fractional bioavailability. Overall, the results indicate that degerminated maize may be a better source of Fe than whole maize and some other crops. Increased non-germ Fe density with a weaker inhibitory effect of the germ fraction are desirable qualities to identify and breed for in maize.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/nu11040833","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,4,12]],"date-time":"2019-04-12T12:55:04Z","timestamp":1555073704000},"page":"833","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":12,"title":["The Germ Fraction Inhibits Iron Bioavailability of Maize: Identification of an Approach to Enhance Maize Nutritional Quality via Processing and Breeding"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"given":"Raymond","family":"Glahn","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Robert Holley Center for Agriculture and Health, 538 Tower Road, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7856-5197","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Elad","family":"Tako","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Robert Holley Center for Agriculture and Health, 538 Tower Road, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6896-8024","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Michael A.","family":"Gore","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Plant Breeding and Genetics Section, School of Integrative Plant Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,4,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (2019). Crop Prospects and Food Situation: Quarterly Global Report, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"88","DOI":"10.1111\/nyas.13315","article-title":"The research and implementation continuum of biofortified sweet potato and maize in Africa","volume":"1390","author":"Tanumihardjo","year":"2017","journal-title":"Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"327","DOI":"10.1017\/S1479262111000116","article-title":"Iron biofortification of maize grain","volume":"9","author":"Hoekenga","year":"2011","journal-title":"Plant Gen. Res."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3688","DOI":"10.1021\/jf0261708","article-title":"Assessment of concentrations of iron and zinc and bioavailable iron in grains of early-maturing tropical maize varieties","volume":"51","author":"Oikeh","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Agric. Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2307","DOI":"10.1081\/PLN-120024283","article-title":"Genotypic differences in concentration and bioavailability of kernel-iron in tropical maize varieties grown under field conditions","volume":"26","author":"Oikeh","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Plant Nutr."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1202","DOI":"10.1002\/jsfa.1805","article-title":"Assessment of iron bioavailability from 20 elite late-maturing tropical maize varieties using an in vitro digestion\/Caco-2 cell model","volume":"84","author":"Oikeh","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Sci. Food Agric."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fcr.2011.05.011","article-title":"The usefulness of iron bioavailability as a target trait for breeding maize (Zea mays L.) with enhanced nutritional value","volume":"123","author":"Pixley","year":"2011","journal-title":"Field Crops Res."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lung\u2019aho, M.G., Mwaniki, A.M., Szalma, S.J., Hart, J.J., Rutzke, M.A., Kochian, L.V., Glahn, R.P., and Hoekenga, O.A. (2011). Genetic and physiological analysis of iron biofortification in maize kernels. PLoS ONE, 6.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0020429"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1186\/1475-2891-12-3","article-title":"Retracted Article: High bioavailability iron maize (Zea mays L.) developed through molecular breeding provides more absorbable iron in vitro (Caco-2 model) and in vivo (Gallus gallus)","volume":"12","author":"Tako","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nutr. J."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126","DOI":"10.1186\/s12937-015-0109-x","article-title":"Retraction Note: High bioavailablilty iron maize (Zea mays L.) developed through molecular breeding provides more absorbable iron in vitro (Caco-2 model) and in vivo (Gallus gallus)","volume":"14","author":"Tako","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nutr. J."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1555","DOI":"10.1093\/jn\/128.9.1555","article-title":"Caco-2 cell ferritin formation predicts nonradiolabeled food iron availability in an in vitro digestion\/Caco-2 cell culture model","volume":"128","author":"Glahn","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tako, E., Bar, H., and Glahn, R.P. (2016). The combined application of the Caco-2 cell bioassay coupled with in vivo (Gallus gallus) feeding trial represents an effective approach to predicting Fe bioavailability in humans. Nutrients, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu8110732"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ingenbleek, L., Sulyok, M., Adegboye, A., Hossou, S.E., Kon\u00e9, A.Z., Oyedele, A.D., Kisito, C.S.K.J., Demb\u00e9l\u00e9, Y.K., Eyangoh, S., and Verger, P. (2019). Regional sub-saharan africa total diet study in benin, cameroon, mali and nigeria reveals the presence of 164 mycotoxins and other secondary metabolites in foods. Toxins, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins11010054"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1016\/j.copbio.2016.10.001","article-title":"Iron biofortification in the 21st century: Setting realistic targets, overcoming obstacles, and new strategies for healthy nutrition","volume":"44","author":"Vasconcelos","year":"2017","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Biotech."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1645","DOI":"10.1007\/s00122-018-3104-8","article-title":"Meta-QTL analysis of seed iron and zinc concentration and content in common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.)","volume":"131","author":"Izquierdo","year":"2018","journal-title":"Theor. Appl. Gen."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2149","DOI":"10.2135\/cropsci2014.09.0653","article-title":"A Phaseolus vulgaris diversity panel for Andean bean improvement","volume":"55","author":"Cichy","year":"2015","journal-title":"Crop Sci."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kumar, S., Hash, C.T., Nepolean, T., Mahendrakar, M.D., Satyavathi, C.T., Singh, G., Rathore, A., Yadav, R.S., Gupta, R., and Srivastava, R.K. (2018). Mapping grain iron and zinc content quantitative trait loci in an iniadi-derived immortal population of pearl millet. Genes, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/genes9050248"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"138","DOI":"10.1016\/j.copbio.2017.01.003","article-title":"Iron-biofortified staple food crops for improving iron status: A review of the current evidence","volume":"44","author":"Finkelstein","year":"2017","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1186\/1475-2891-14-11","article-title":"Higher iron pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum L.) provides more absorbable iron that is limited by increased polyphenolic content","volume":"14","author":"Tako","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nutr. J."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tako, E., Reed, S., Anandaraman, A., Beebe, S.E., Hart, J.J., and Glahn, R.P. (2015). Studies of cream seeded carioca beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) from a Rwandan efficacy trial: In vitro and in vivo screening tools reflect human studies and predict beneficial results from iron biofortified beans. PLoS ONE, 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0138479"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1186\/1475-2891-10-113","article-title":"Biofortified red mottled beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) in a maize and bean diet provide more bioavailable iron than standard red mottled beans: Studies in poultry (Gallus gallus) and an in vitro digestion\/Caco-2 model","volume":"14","author":"Tako","year":"2011","journal-title":"Nutr. J."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"937","DOI":"10.3389\/fpls.2018.00937","article-title":"Genetic basis and breeding perspectives of grain iron and zinc enrichment in cereals","volume":"9","author":"Chander","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Plant Sci."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1080","DOI":"10.1007\/s13197-017-2547-2","article-title":"Compositional variability of nutrients and phytochemicals in corn after processing","volume":"54","author":"Prasanthi","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Food Sci. Tech."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"489","DOI":"10.1078\/0176-1617-00361","article-title":"Genetics and breeding of seed phosphorus and phytic acid","volume":"158","author":"Raboy","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Plant Physiol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12954","DOI":"10.1021\/jf203485a","article-title":"Genetic modification of low phytic acid 1-1 maize to enhance iron content and bioavailability","volume":"59","author":"Aluru","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Agric. Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3193","DOI":"10.1039\/C6FO00490C","article-title":"The cotyledon cell wall of the common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) resists digestion in the upper intestine and thus may limit iron bioavailability","volume":"7","author":"Glahn","year":"2016","journal-title":"Food Func."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8592","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.jafc.6b03100","article-title":"Demonstrating a nutritional advantage to the fast-cooking dry bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.)","volume":"64","author":"Wiesinger","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Agric. Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3285","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.jafc.6b05755","article-title":"Characterization of polyphenol effects on inhibition and promotion of iron uptake by Caco-2 cells","volume":"65","author":"Hart","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Agric. Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wiesinger, J.A., Cichy, K.A., Tako, E., and Glahn, R.P. (2018). The fast cooking and enhanced iron bioavailability properties of the manteca yellow bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.). Nutrients, 10.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints201809.0465.v1"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dias, D.M., Kolba, N., Binyamin, D., Ziv, O., Regini Nutti, M., Martino, H.S.D., Glahn, R.P., Koren, O., and Tako, E. (2018). Iron biofortified carioca bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.)-based brazilian diet delivers more absorbable iron and affects the gut microbiota in vivo (Gallus gallus). Nutrients, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu10121970"}],"container-title":["Nutrients"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/11\/4\/833\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T12:44:59Z","timestamp":1760186699000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/11\/4\/833"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2019,4,12]]},"references-count":30,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,4]]}},"alternative-id":["nu11040833"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/nu11040833","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-6643"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-6643","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2019,4,12]]}}}