{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,20]],"date-time":"2026-07-20T14:15:44Z","timestamp":1784556944078,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":47,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,6,29]],"date-time":"2019-06-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1561766400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100009633","name":"Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["R21HD085137"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R21HD085137"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100009633","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nutrients"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Snacking is a significant contributor to energy intake among adolescents, but its association with weight status is unclear. To elucidate this association, data from 6545 adolescents (12\u201319 years) in the 2005\u20132016 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) were analyzed. The mean number of daily snack occasions, mean snack size, and mean snack energy density were examined by weight classification (body mass index (BMI)-for-age percentiles: normal weight (NW) &lt;85th; overweight (OW) \u226585th to &lt;95th; obese (OB) \u226595th). Models included all snacking parameters, mean meal size, demographic characteristics, survey cycle year, and dietary reporting accuracy. Adolescents with NW consumed fewer snacks daily (1.69 (0.02) snacks\/day) and smaller snacks per occasion (262.32 (4.41) calories (kcal)\/snack) compared to adolescents with OW (1.85 (0.05) snacks\/day, p = 0.005; 305.41 (8.84) kcal\/snack, p &lt; 0.001), and OB (1.97 (0.05) snacks\/day; 339.60 (10.12) kcal\/snack, both p &lt; 0.001). Adolescents with OW and OB also consumed more added sugar, saturated fat and sodium from snacks, but had lower mean energy density per snack compared to snacks consumed by NW adolescents. US adolescents with OW and OB consume more snacks daily and more calories at each snacking occasion compared to adolescents with NW. Future studies should examine the prospective associations between snacking and weight status and impact on overall diet quality.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/nu11071486","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,7,1]],"date-time":"2019-07-01T03:23:59Z","timestamp":1561951439000},"page":"1486","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":52,"title":["Associations between Snacking and Weight Status among Adolescents 12\u201319 Years in the United States"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"given":"Gina L.","family":"Tripicchio","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Obesity Research and Education, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA 19140, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alexandria","family":"Kachurak","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Obesity Research and Education, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA 19140, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0796-2283","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Adam","family":"Davey","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Behavioral Health and Nutrition, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0181-6223","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Regan L.","family":"Bailey","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Nutrition Science, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8067-6056","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lauren J.","family":"Dabritz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Obesity Research and Education, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA 19140, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jennifer O.","family":"Fisher","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Obesity Research and Education, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA 19140, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,6,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"247","DOI":"10.1111\/ijpo.12220","article-title":"37 year snacking trends for US children 1977\u20132014","volume":"13","author":"Dunford","year":"2018","journal-title":"Pediatr Obes."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2292","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2016.6361","article-title":"Trends in obesity prevalence among children and adolescents in the United States, 1988\u20131994 through 2013\u20132014","volume":"315","author":"Ogden","year":"2016","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"U.S. Department of Agriculture ARS (2019, May 20). Snacks: Percentages of Selected Nutrients Contributed by Food and Beverages Consumed at Snack Occasions, by Gender and Age, Available online: https:\/\/www.ars.usda.gov\/ARSUserFiles\/80400530\/pdf\/1314\/Table_25_SNK_GEN_13.pdf."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"398","DOI":"10.1377\/hlthaff.2009.0666","article-title":"Trends in snacking among U.S. children","volume":"29","author":"Piernas","year":"2010","journal-title":"Health Aff. (Millwood)"},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"U.S. Department of Health and Human Services and U.S. Department of Agriculture (2019, May 12). 2015\u20132020 Dietary Guidelines for Americans, Available online: https:\/\/heatlh.gov\/dietaryguidelines\/2015\/guidelines\/."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1635","DOI":"10.1017\/S1368980016000069","article-title":"Meal and snack frequency in relation to diet quality in US children and adolescents: The National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2003\u20132012","volume":"19","author":"Murakami","year":"2016","journal-title":"Public Health Nutr."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1348","DOI":"10.3945\/jn.116.230334","article-title":"Adolescent snacking behaviors are associated with dietary intake and weight status","volume":"146","author":"Larson","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1999","DOI":"10.1161\/01.CIR.0000161369.71722.10","article-title":"Overweight in children and adolescents: Pathophysiology, consequences, prevention, and treatment","volume":"111","author":"Daniels","year":"2005","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"272","DOI":"10.1001\/jamapediatrics.2014.3216","article-title":"Prevalence of and trends in dyslipidemia and blood pressure among US children and adolescents, 1999\u20132012","volume":"169","author":"Kit","year":"2015","journal-title":"JAMA Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2430","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1503840","article-title":"Body-mass index in 2.3 million adolescents and cardiovascular death in adulthood","volume":"374","author":"Twig","year":"2016","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2145","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1703860","article-title":"Simulation of growth trajectories of childhood obesity into adulthood","volume":"377","author":"Ward","year":"2017","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1016\/S0749-3797(03)00098-9","article-title":"Eating patterns and obesity in children. The Bogalusa Heart Study","volume":"25","author":"Nicklas","year":"2003","journal-title":"Am. J. Prev. Med."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"248","DOI":"10.1089\/chi.2014.0124","article-title":"Treatment of child\/adolescent obesity using the addiction model: A smartphone app pilot study","volume":"11","author":"Pretlow","year":"2015","journal-title":"Child Obes."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1368","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph9041368","article-title":"Are changes in consumption of \u201chealthy\u201d foods related to changes in consumption of \u201cunhealthy\u201d foods during pediatric obesity treatment?","volume":"9","author":"Looney","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"466","DOI":"10.3945\/an.115.009571","article-title":"What Is a snack, why do we snack, and how can we choose better snacks? A review of the definitions of snacking, motivations to snack, contributions to dietary intake, and recommendations for improvement","volume":"7","author":"Hess","year":"2016","journal-title":"Adv. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"302","DOI":"10.1111\/nbu.12042","article-title":"Is snacking good or bad for health: An overview","volume":"38","author":"Miller","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nutr. Bull."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104","DOI":"10.1089\/chi.2012.0108","article-title":"A review of snacking patterns among children and adolescents: What are the implications of snacking for weight status?","volume":"9","author":"Larson","year":"2013","journal-title":"Child Obes."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vatanparast, H., Islam, N., Patil, R.P., Shafiee, M., Smith, J., and Whiting, S. (2019). Snack consumption patterns among Canadians. Nutrients, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu11051152"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1819","DOI":"10.1017\/S0007114516000854","article-title":"Associations between meal and snack frequency and overweight and abdominal obesity in US children and adolescents from National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2003\u20132012","volume":"115","author":"Murakami","year":"2016","journal-title":"Br. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1034","DOI":"10.1002\/oby.22172","article-title":"Daily snacking occasions and weight status among us children aged 1 to 5 years","volume":"26","author":"Kachurak","year":"2018","journal-title":"Obesity (Silver Spring)"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"428","DOI":"10.3945\/ajcn.2009.28421","article-title":"Snacking is associated with reduced risk of overweight and reduced abdominal obesity in adolescents: National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 1999\u20132004","volume":"92","author":"Keast","year":"2010","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136","DOI":"10.1038\/ijo.2014.81","article-title":"Increased eating frequency linked to decreased obesity and improved metabolic outcomes","volume":"39","author":"House","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Obes. (Lond.)"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"847","DOI":"10.1016\/j.numecd.2018.04.002","article-title":"Association between eating time interval and frequency with ideal cardiovascular health: Results from a random sample Czech urban population","volume":"28","author":"Maugeri","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nutr. Metab. Cardiovasc. Dis."},{"key":"ref_24","first-page":"1","article-title":"National health and nutrition examination survey: Plan and operations, 1999\u20132010","volume":"56","author":"Zipf","year":"2013","journal-title":"Vital Health Stat. 1"},{"key":"ref_25","first-page":"1","article-title":"National health and nutrition examination survey: Sample design, 2011\u20132014","volume":"162","author":"Johnson","year":"2014","journal-title":"Vital Health Stat. 2"},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (2019, March 28). Annual Update of the HHS Poverty Guidelines 2019, Available online: https:\/\/www.federalregister.gov\/documents\/2019\/02\/01\/2019-00621\/annual-update-of-the-hhs-poverty-guidelines."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2019, May 10). National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES): Anthropometry Procedure Manual, Available online: https:\/\/wwwn.cdc.gov\/nchs\/data\/nhanes\/2015-2016\/manuals\/2016_Anthropometry_Procedures_Manual.pdf."},{"key":"ref_28","first-page":"1","article-title":"2000 CDC Growth Charts for the United States: Methods and development","volume":"246","author":"Kuczmarski","year":"2002","journal-title":"Vital Health Stat. 11"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2427","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2017.0332","article-title":"Screening for obesity and intervention for weight management in children and adolescents: Evidence report and systematic review for the us preventive services task Force","volume":"317","author":"Evans","year":"2017","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.3945\/an.115.009258","article-title":"Update on NHANES Dietary Data: Focus on Collection, Release, Analytical Considerations, and Uses to Inform Public Policy","volume":"7","author":"Ahluwalia","year":"2016","journal-title":"Adv. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"545","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jfca.2004.02.013","article-title":"An overview of USDA\u2019s dietary intake data system","volume":"17","author":"Raper","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Food Compos. Anal."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2594","DOI":"10.1093\/jn\/136.10.2594","article-title":"The USDA Automated Multiple-Pass Method accurately estimates group total energy and nutrient intake","volume":"136","author":"Blanton","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"(2019, May 12). U.S. Department of Agriculture ARS, Beltsville Human Nutrition Research Center; U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Health Statistics, Available online: https:\/\/www.ars.usda.gov\/northeast-area\/beltsville-md-bhnrc\/beltsville-human-nutrition-research-center\/food-surveys-research-group\/."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Institute of Medicine FaNB (2002). Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids, National Academy Press."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2211","DOI":"10.1249\/MSS.0b013e3181e1fba9","article-title":"Physical activity in US youth: Effect of race\/ethnicity, age, gender, and weight status","volume":"42","author":"Belcher","year":"2010","journal-title":"Med. Sci. Sports Exerc."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"755","DOI":"10.1093\/her\/cyl128","article-title":"Overweight in children: Definitions and interpretation","volume":"21","author":"Flegal","year":"2006","journal-title":"Health Educ. Res."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"Kuczmarski, R.J., Ogden, C.L., Grummer-Strawn, L.M., Flegal, K.M., Guo, S.S., Wei, R., Mei, Z., Curtin, L.R., Roche, A.F., and Johnson, C.L. (2000). CDC growth charts: United States. Advance Data from Vital and Health Statistics, National Center for Health Statistics."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"351","DOI":"10.1007\/s00394-016-1324-8","article-title":"Dietary energy density and obesity: How consumption patterns differ by body weight status","volume":"57","author":"Vernarelli","year":"2018","journal-title":"Eur. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"609","DOI":"10.1016\/j.physbeh.2009.03.011","article-title":"The relationship between dietary energy density and energy intake","volume":"97","author":"Rolls","year":"2009","journal-title":"Physiol. Behav."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128","DOI":"10.1111\/ijpo.12034","article-title":"Relationship between dietary energy density and dietary quality in overweight young children: A cross-sectional analysis","volume":"11","author":"Poole","year":"2016","journal-title":"Pediatr. Obes."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mcna.2017.08.009","article-title":"Dietary management of obesity: Cornerstones of healthy eating patterns","volume":"102","author":"Smethers","year":"2018","journal-title":"Med. Clin. N. Am."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"324","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/88.2.324","article-title":"The US Department of Agriculture Automated Multiple-Pass Method reduces bias in the collection of energy intakes","volume":"88","author":"Moshfegh","year":"2008","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"294","DOI":"10.1017\/S0007114515004304","article-title":"Prevalence and characteristics of misreporting of energy intake in US children and adolescents: National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2003\u20132012","volume":"115","author":"Murakami","year":"2016","journal-title":"Br. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1616","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.2007.115626","article-title":"The context for choice: Health implications of targeted food and beverage marketing to African Americans","volume":"98","author":"Grier","year":"2008","journal-title":"Am. J. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1110","DOI":"10.1037\/hea0000389","article-title":"Emotion Dysregulation and Loss-of-Control Eating in Children and Adolescents","volume":"35","author":"Kelly","year":"2016","journal-title":"Health Psychol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4804","DOI":"10.3390\/nu7064804","article-title":"Does motivation for exercise influence post-exercise snacking behavior?","volume":"7","author":"Dimmock","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nutrients"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1016\/j.appet.2010.03.002","article-title":"Peer influence on snacking behavior in adolescence","volume":"55","author":"Wouters","year":"2010","journal-title":"Appetite"}],"container-title":["Nutrients"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/11\/7\/1486\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T13:02:26Z","timestamp":1760187746000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/11\/7\/1486"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2019,6,29]]},"references-count":47,"journal-issue":{"issue":"7","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,7]]}},"alternative-id":["nu11071486"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/nu11071486","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-6643"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-6643","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2019,6,29]]}}}