{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,26]],"date-time":"2026-09-26T05:03:57Z","timestamp":1790399037936,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":52,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,7,22]],"date-time":"2019-07-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1563753600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"University of Southern Queensland Research and Innovation Division","award":["SRF09"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SRF09"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nutrients"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Linseed is a dietary source of plant-based \u03c9\u20133 fatty acids along with fiber as well as lignans including secoisolariciresinol diglucoside (SDG). We investigated the reversal of signs of metabolic syndrome following addition of whole linseed (5%), defatted linseed (3%), or SDG (0.03%) to either a high-carbohydrate, high-fat or corn starch diet for rats for the final eight weeks of a 16\u2013week protocol. All interventions reduced plasma insulin, systolic blood pressure, inflammatory cell infiltration in heart, ventricular collagen deposition, and diastolic stiffness but had no effect on plasma total cholesterol, nonesterified fatty acids, or triglycerides. Whole linseed did not change the body weight or abdominal fat in obese rats while SDG and defatted linseed decreased abdominal fat and defatted linseed increased lean mass. Defatted linseed and SDG, but not whole linseed, improved heart and liver structure, decreased fat vacuoles in liver, and decreased plasma leptin concentrations. These results show that the individual components of linseed produce greater potential therapeutic responses in rats with metabolic syndrome than whole linseed. We suggest that the reduced responses indicate reduced oral bioavailability of the whole seeds compared to the components.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/nu11071677","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,7,22]],"date-time":"2019-07-22T02:55:37Z","timestamp":1563764137000},"page":"1677","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":14,"title":["Linseed Components Are More Effective Than Whole Linseed in Reversing Diet-Induced Metabolic Syndrome in Rats"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2983-7536","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Siti Raihanah","family":"Shafie","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Functional Foods Research Group, University of Southern Queensland, Toowoomba, QLD 4350, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2895-5565","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Stephen","family":"Wanyonyi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Functional Foods Research Group, University of Southern Queensland, Toowoomba, QLD 4350, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5464-3376","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sunil K.","family":"Panchal","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Functional Foods Research Group, University of Southern Queensland, Toowoomba, QLD 4350, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7837-991X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lindsay","family":"Brown","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Functional Foods Research Group, University of Southern Queensland, Toowoomba, QLD 4350, Australia"},{"name":"School of Health and Wellbeing, University of Southern Queensland, Toowoomba, QLD 4350, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,7,22]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1633","DOI":"10.1007\/s13197-013-1247-9","article-title":"Flax and flaxseed oil: An ancient medicine & modern functional food","volume":"51","author":"Goyal","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Food Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tifs.2014.03.011","article-title":"Flaxseed (Linum usitatissimum L.) bioactive compounds and peptide nomenclature: A review","volume":"38","author":"Shim","year":"2014","journal-title":"Trends Food Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"H146","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpheart.00400.2017","article-title":"Flaxseed: Its bioactive components and their cardiovascular benefits","volume":"314","author":"Parikh","year":"2018","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Heart Circ. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hegde, M.V., Zanwar, A.A., and Adekar, S.P. (2016). Linseed as a functional food for the management of obesity. Omega-3 Fatty Acids: Keys to Nutritional Health, Springer International Publishing.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-40458-5"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1186\/s12937-015-0059-3","article-title":"Potential protective properties of flax lignan secoisolariciresinol diglucoside","volume":"14","author":"Imran","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nutr. J."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1139\/cjpp-2018-0547","article-title":"Dietary flaxseed: What we know and don\u2019t know about its effects on cardiovascular disease","volume":"97","author":"Parikh","year":"2018","journal-title":"Can. J. Physiol. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1006\/fstl.1996.0141","article-title":"Effect of dehulling on chemical composition and physical properties of flaxseed","volume":"30","author":"Oomah","year":"1997","journal-title":"LWT\u2014Food Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2812","DOI":"10.1093\/jn\/135.12.2812","article-title":"The relative bioavailability of enterolignans in humans is enhanced by milling and crushing of flaxseed","volume":"135","author":"Kuijsten","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1609","DOI":"10.1007\/s11746-015-2729-x","article-title":"Effect of extraction method on the phenolic and cyanogenic glucoside profile of flaxseed extracts and their antioxidant capacity","volume":"92","author":"Waszkowiak","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1857","DOI":"10.1007\/s13197-014-1293-y","article-title":"Flaxseed-a potential functional food source","volume":"52","author":"Kajla","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Food Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"214","DOI":"10.1080\/07315724.2008.10719693","article-title":"Bioavailability of a-linolenic acid in subjects after ingestion of three different forms of flaxseed","volume":"27","author":"Austria","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"749","DOI":"10.1017\/S0007114514004371","article-title":"Comparative pharmacokinetics of purified flaxseed and associated mammalian lignans in male Wistar rats","volume":"113","author":"Mukker","year":"2015","journal-title":"Br. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"611","DOI":"10.1097\/FJC.0b013e3181feb90a","article-title":"High-carbohydrate, high-fat diet-induced metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular remodeling in rats","volume":"57","author":"Panchal","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Cardiovasc. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1381","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jnutbio.2012.11.006","article-title":"Responses to oleic, linoleic and a-linolenic acids in high-carbohydrate, high-fat diet-induced metabolic syndrome in rats","volume":"24","author":"Poudyal","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Nutr. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jnutbio.2010.11.011","article-title":"Lipid redistribution by a-linolenic acid-rich chia seed inhibits stearoyl-CoA desaturase-1 and induces cardiac and hepatic protection in diet-induced obese rats","volume":"23","author":"Poudyal","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Nutr. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"338","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lwt.2013.01.004","article-title":"Quality evaluation of flaxseed oil obtained by different extraction techniques","volume":"53","author":"Khattab","year":"2013","journal-title":"LWT\u2014Food Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"149","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pharep.2018.10.006","article-title":"An improved rat model for chronic inflammatory bowel disease","volume":"71","author":"Ghattamaneni","year":"2018","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Rep."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"914","DOI":"10.1111\/obr.12313","article-title":"Functional foods as potential therapeutic options for metabolic syndrome","volume":"16","author":"Brown","year":"2015","journal-title":"Obes. Rev."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1096","DOI":"10.1111\/obr.12550","article-title":"The effect of flaxseed supplementation on body weight and body composition: A systematic review and meta-analysis of 45 randomized placebo-controlled trials","volume":"18","author":"Mazloom","year":"2017","journal-title":"Obes. Rev."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"615","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clnu.2015.05.012","article-title":"Effects of flaxseed supplements on blood pressure: A systematic review and meta-analysis of controlled clinical trial","volume":"35","author":"Ursoniu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"698","DOI":"10.1039\/C5FO01598G","article-title":"Effects of diet containing flaxseed flour (Linum usitatissimum) on body adiposity and bone health in young male rats","volume":"7","author":"Ribeiro","year":"2016","journal-title":"Food Funct."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3287","DOI":"10.3390\/nu5083287","article-title":"Linseed dietary fibers reduce apparent digestibility of energy and fat and weight gain in growing rats","volume":"5","author":"Kristensen","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nutrients"},{"key":"ref_23","first-page":"121","article-title":"Proteins of linseed (Linum usitatissimum L.), extraction and characterization by electrophoresis","volume":"40","author":"Sammour","year":"1999","journal-title":"Bot. Bull. Acad. Sin."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"271","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2003.07.038","article-title":"Isolation and structural characterization of the major protein fraction from NorMan flaxseed (Linum usitatissimum L.)","volume":"90","author":"Chung","year":"2005","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clnu.2008.01.001","article-title":"Effect of amino acid supplementation on muscle mass, strength and physical function in elderly","volume":"27","author":"Borsheim","year":"2008","journal-title":"Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"544","DOI":"10.1038\/ejcn.2016.266","article-title":"The effect of L-arginine supplementation on body composition and performance in male athletes: A double-blinded randomized clinical trial","volume":"71","author":"Pahlavani","year":"2017","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1039\/C2FO30096F","article-title":"Chronic L-arginine treatment improves metabolic, cardiovascular and liver complications in diet-induced obesity in rats","volume":"4","author":"Alam","year":"2013","journal-title":"Food Funct."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"669","DOI":"10.1017\/S0007114508911570","article-title":"Flaxseed lignan attenuates high-fat diet-induced fat accumulation and induces adiponectin expression in mice","volume":"100","author":"Fukumitsu","year":"2008","journal-title":"Br. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"235","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejphar.2017.12.038","article-title":"Secoisolariciresinol diglucoside inhibits adipogenesis through the AMPK pathway","volume":"820","author":"Kang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Eur. J. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"751","DOI":"10.1017\/S0007114518001824","article-title":"7-Hydroxymatairesinol improves body weight, fat and sugar metabolism in C57BJ\/6 mice on a high-fat diet","volume":"120","author":"Biasiotto","year":"2018","journal-title":"Br. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1415","DOI":"10.1016\/S0024-3205(99)00075-2","article-title":"High flaxseed (linseed) diet restores endothelial function in the mesenteric arterial bed of spontaneously hypertensive rats","volume":"64","author":"Talom","year":"1999","journal-title":"Life Sci."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"709","DOI":"10.5650\/jos.62.709","article-title":"Favorable effects of flaxseed supplemented diet on liver and kidney functions in hypertensive Wistar rats","volume":"62","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Oleo Sci."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"683","DOI":"10.1017\/S0007114514004115","article-title":"Urinary enterolactone is associated with obesity and metabolic alteration in men in the US National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2001-10","volume":"113","author":"Xu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Br. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3029","DOI":"10.1111\/1750-3841.13964","article-title":"Protective role of flaxseed oil and flaxseed lignan secoisolariciresinol diglucoside against oxidative stress in rats with metabolic syndrome","volume":"82","author":"Pilar","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Food Sci."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"411","DOI":"10.3109\/0886022X.2015.1136895","article-title":"Flax lignan concentrate reverses alterations in blood pressure, left ventricular functions, lipid profile and antioxidant status in DOCA-salt induced renal hypertension in rats","volume":"38","author":"Sawant","year":"2016","journal-title":"Ren. Fail."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"941","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fitote.2012.04.010","article-title":"Potential effects of lignan-enriched flaxseed powder on bodyweight, visceral fat, lipid profile, and blood pressure in rats","volume":"83","author":"Park","year":"2012","journal-title":"Fitoterapia"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1031","DOI":"10.1161\/HYPERTENSIONAHA.116.07834","article-title":"Dietary flaxseed reduces central aortic blood pressure without cardiac involvement but through changes in plasma oxylipins","volume":"68","author":"Caligiuri","year":"2016","journal-title":"Hypertension"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Opyd, P.M., Jurgonski, A., Juskiewicz, J., Fotschki, B., and Koza, J. (2018). Comparative effects of native and defatted flaxseeds on intestinal enzyme activity and lipid metabolism in rats fed a high-fat diet containing cholic acid. Nutrients, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu10091181"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.2174\/1574887110666150121154334","article-title":"Effect of flaxseed on blood lipid level in hyperlipidemic patients","volume":"10","author":"Torkan","year":"2015","journal-title":"Rev. Recent Clin. Trials"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ren, G.Y., Chen, C.Y., Chen, G.C., Chen, W.G., Pan, A., Pan, C.W., Zhang, Y.H., Qin, L.Q., and Chen, L.H. (2016). Effect of flaxseed intervention on inflammatory marker C-reactive protein: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Nutrients, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu8030136"},{"key":"ref_41","first-page":"141","article-title":"Flaxseed and diabetes","volume":"22","author":"Kailash","year":"2016","journal-title":"Curr. Pharm. Des."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1748-1716.2005.01502.x","article-title":"The role of adipokines as regulators of skeletal muscle fatty acid metabolism and insulin sensitivity","volume":"186","author":"Dyck","year":"2006","journal-title":"Acta Physiol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"210","DOI":"10.1080\/10408390903537241","article-title":"Flaxseed: A potential source of food, feed and fiber","volume":"51","author":"Singh","year":"2011","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"688","DOI":"10.1039\/C7FO01820G","article-title":"Diet and microbiota linked in health and disease","volume":"9","author":"Requena","year":"2018","journal-title":"Food Funct."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"667","DOI":"10.1080\/19390211.2017.1305477","article-title":"Flaxseed- and buckwheat-supplemented diets altered Enterobacteriaceae diversity and prevalence in the cecum and feces of obese mice","volume":"14","author":"Pulkrabek","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Diet. Suppl."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1614","DOI":"10.1002\/mnfr.201500125","article-title":"Gut metabolites and bacterial community networks during a pilot intervention study with flaxseeds in healthy adult men","volume":"59","author":"Lagkouvardos","year":"2015","journal-title":"Mol. Nutr. Food Res."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"712","DOI":"10.1038\/mi.2015.32","article-title":"New developments in goblet cell mucus secretion and function","volume":"8","author":"Birchenough","year":"2015","journal-title":"Mucosal Immunol."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"609","DOI":"10.1002\/mnfr.201500703","article-title":"Dietary emulsifiers from milk and soybean differently impact adiposity and inflammation in association with modulation of colonic goblet cells in high-fat fed mice","volume":"60","author":"Lecomte","year":"2016","journal-title":"Mol. Nutr. Food Res."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jnutbio.2015.09.028","article-title":"Dietary flaxseed modulates the colonic microenvironment in healthy C57Bl\/6 male mice which may alter susceptibility to gut-associated diseases","volume":"28","author":"Power","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Nutr. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1188","DOI":"10.1271\/bbb.70.1188","article-title":"Dietary indigestible components exert different regional effects on luminal mucin secretion through their bulk-forming property and fermentability","volume":"70","author":"Tanabe","year":"2006","journal-title":"Biosci. Biotechnol. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fct.2019.01.002","article-title":"Metabolism of cyanogenic glycosides: A review","volume":"125","author":"Cressey","year":"2019","journal-title":"Food Chem. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_52","first-page":"10","article-title":"Resorption of hydrocyanic acid from linseed","volume":"13","author":"Schulz","year":"1983","journal-title":"Leber Magen Darm"}],"container-title":["Nutrients"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/11\/7\/1677\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T13:08:08Z","timestamp":1760188088000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/11\/7\/1677"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2019,7,22]]},"references-count":52,"journal-issue":{"issue":"7","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,7]]}},"alternative-id":["nu11071677"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/nu11071677","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-6643"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-6643","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2019,7,22]]}}}