{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,15]],"date-time":"2026-05-15T22:44:07Z","timestamp":1778885047081,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":44,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,10,15]],"date-time":"2019-10-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1571097600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001691","name":"Japan Society for the Promotion of Science","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["19K20199"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["19K20199"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001691","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nutrients"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This study aims at combining time and quantity of carbohydrate (CH) intake in the definition of eating patterns in UK adults and investigating the association of the derived patterns with type 2 diabetes (T2D). The National Diet and Nutrition Survey (NDNS) Rolling Program included 6155 adults in the UK. Time of the day was categorized into 7 pre-defined time slots: 6\u20139 am, 9\u201312 noon, 12\u20132 pm, 2\u20135 pm, 5\u20138 pm, 8\u201310 pm, and 10 pm\u20136 am. Responses for CH intake were categorized into: no energy intake, CH &lt;50% or \u226550% of total energy. Non-parametric multilevel latent class analysis (MLCA) was applied to identify eating patterns of CH consumption across day-time, as a novel method accounting for the repeated measurements of intake over 3\u20134 days nested within individuals. Survey-designed multivariable regression was used to assess the associations of CH eating patterns with T2D. Three CH eating day patterns (low, high CH percentage and regular meal CH intake day) emerged from 24,483 observation days; based on which three classes of CH eaters were identified and characterized as: low (28.1%), moderate (28.8%) and high (43.1%) CH eaters. On average, low-CH eaters consumed the highest amount of total energy intake (7985.8 kJ) and had higher percentages of energy contributed by fat and alcohol, especially after 8 pm. Moderate-CH eaters consumed the lowest amount of total energy (7341.8 kJ) while they tended to have their meals later in the day. High-CH eaters consumed most of their carbohydrates and energy earlier in the day and within the time slots of 6\u20139 am, 12\u20132 p.m. and 5\u20138 pm, which correspond to traditional mealtimes. The high-CH eaters profile had the highest daily intake of CH and fiber and the lowest intake of protein and fat. Low-CH eaters had greater odds than high-CH eaters of having T2D in self-reported but not in previously undiagnosed diabetics. Further research using prospective longitudinal studies is warranted to ascertain the direction of causality in the association of CH patterns with type 2 diabetes.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/nu11102476","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,10,16]],"date-time":"2019-10-16T03:32:54Z","timestamp":1571196774000},"page":"2476","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Day-Time Patterns of Carbohydrate Intake in Adults by Non-Parametric Multi-Level Latent Class Analysis\u2014Results from the UK National Diet and Nutrition Survey (2008\/09\u20132015\/16)"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"given":"Chaochen","family":"Wang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Public Health, Aichi Medical University, Nagakute, Aichi 480-1195, Japan"},{"name":"Department of Medical Statistics, London School of Hygiene &amp; Tropical Medicine, London WC1E 7HT, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Suzana","family":"Almoosawi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"NNEdPro Global Centre for Nutrition and Health, Cambridge CB4 0WS, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6944-1750","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Luigi","family":"Palla","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Statistics, London School of Hygiene &amp; Tropical Medicine, London WC1E 7HT, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,10,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Almoosawi, S., Vingeliene, S., Gachon, F., Voortman, T., Palla, L., Johnston, J.D., Van Dam, R.M., Darimont, C., and Karagounis, L.G. 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